Solid Oxide Fuel Cells: Principles, Applications, and Analysis

This report provides a comprehensive overview of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs), a promising technology for power generation. It begins with an introduction and a brief history of SOFCs, highlighting their development and evolution. The report then delves into the description, measurement, and mechanism of SOFCs, explaining how they convert chemical energy into electricity. Detailed descriptions of the components, including the anode, cathode, electrolyte, sealing material, and interconnect material, are provided. The report also discusses the advantages and disadvantages of SOFCs, such as high efficiency and high operating temperatures. Finally, it concludes with a summary of the key findings and references relevant literature on the topic. The report emphasizes the potential of SOFCs to reduce air pollution and improve energy efficiency, making them a significant area of research and development.

Running head: SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELLS
SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELLS
Name of the Student:-
Name of the University:-
Author’s Note:-

1SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELLS
Table of Contents
I. Introduction:-................................................................................................................................ 2
II. History:-................................................................................................................................... 2
III. Description:-............................................................................................................................. 2
IV. Measurement and Mechanism:-...............................................................................................3
V. Components:-.......................................................................................................................... 6
A. Anode:-................................................................................................................................. 6
B. Cathode:-.............................................................................................................................. 6
C. Electrolyte:-.......................................................................................................................... 6
D. Sealing Material:-.................................................................................................................. 6
E. Interconnect Material:-..........................................................................................................6
VI. Advantages and Disadvantages:-............................................................................................7
VII. Conclusion:-............................................................................................................................. 7
VIII. References:-......................................................................................................................... 7

2SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELLS
SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELLS

I. INTRODUCTION:-
A solid oxide fuel cell is measuring as a
promising fresh technology for power generation. It
can transform the chemical energy in fuel openly
into heat and electricity, thereby ensuing in high
effectiveness and lesser air pollution over
conservative internal ignition engines. This type of
fuel cell is functioning at high heats (874.28-
1272.96 K), a high heat consume gas from the
SOFC stack could be thermally applied for other
heat-requiring components in the SOFC structure,
ensuing in the decrease of energy ingesting. Thus,
temperature management within the SOFC
structure is a vital issue disturbing its energy
effectiveness [1]. This kind of cathode decreases
gaseous oxygen to ionic oxygen which diffuses
over an electrolyte to an anode where they react a
fuel ensuing in the discharge of electrons which
can drive an external circuit. It is are eye-catching
because they can openly apply a variability of
several fuels like hydrogen and hydrocarbon and
high heat operation enhances the resistance to
poisons.
II. HISTORY:-
The first solid oxide fuel cell was exposed in
Germany in 1899 by Walther Hermann Nernst.
Westinghouse Electric developed as the worldwide
SOFC leader by 1959-1961 [2]. The United States
of America energy department boarded on a
significant research and development program in
1976-1977 to uphold SWPC's tubular robust oxide
fuel cell technology. Nowadays, SOFC technology
is followed actively as PEMFC technology. Japan
has developed as today's international SOFC
leader, with Europe and the US tied for second.
III. DESCRIPTION:-
There are many categories of fuel cells are
there, and solid oxide fuel cells are one of them.
This category of fuel cell available a non-porous,
hard ceramic electrolyte compound. SOFCs are
about 65% effective at adapting gas to energy. In
applications considered to utilize and capture the
structure's excess heat, entire fuel use proficiencies
might top 80 to 85%. The SOFC is mainly
functioning at very high heats, like 1,000°C. High
heat process eliminates the necessity for valuable
metal catalyst, thereby decreasing cost. In this
report, the writer is mentioning SOFC as an
abbreviation of Solid Oxide Fuel cells.
Picture Source:- Adapted from [3]
This kinds of fuel cell have a wide variety of
applications from availability as secondary power
units in transports to immobile power generation
with outputs from 98W to 1.8MW. Massive
functioning heats make these fuel cells suitable
contenders for application with heat retrieval

devices or combined power and heat, which
enhances whole fuel effectiveness. The oxidants
and fuel flows can be preparing as co-flows, cross-
flows, or counter-flow with theoretically substantial
effects on heat and current circulation inside the
stack liable on the specific stack configuration.
Picture Source: - Adapted from [6]
It too permits SOFC to reorganize fuels on
the inside, which assists the availability of a
diversity of fuels. It also decreases the price related
to adding a reorganizer to the system. The extreme
operating heats also place severe stability
necessities on materials [7]. The expansion of low-
cost resources with high robustness at cell
functioning infections is the crucial methodological
experiment facing this technology [4]. Lower-
temperature solid oxide fuel cells have not yet
complemented the presentation of the
sophisticated temperature systems, though, and
mass resources that will utilize in this lesser
temperature ratio are still under expansion.
Anode reaction:-
2H2 + 2O2− → 2H2O + 4e−
Cathode reaction:-
O2 + 4e− → 2O2−
Overall cell reaction:-
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
So,
H2 + O2 (a) + H2O +Waste Heat + Electric Energy
CO + O2 (a) + CO2 +Waste Heat + Electric Energy
Picture Source: - Adapted from [3]
IV. MEASUREMENT AND MECHANISM:-
SOFC can be clustering into planar and
tabular designs. Both categories can contain one or
some particular cells each stacking unit, i.e., on a
particular tube or in a solitary layer. The planar
structures of SOFC can be separated into stacks
comprising ceramic, or metallic interrelate material
as well as into cells with thin or thick membranes
with thicknesses generally of 5–20μm and 150–
250μm, correspondingly [5]. The dimension of
technologically appropriate planar cells differs from
10.25×9.75cm2 to 25×25cm2 or consistent areas in
overweight shape.
The process of the SOFC is direct. The
oxygen atoms are condensed on the surface of the
porous cathode by the electrons. The oxide ions

diffuse over the electrolyte to the gasoline porous
and rich anode, where they respond with the
hydrogen fuel and contribute electrons to an
outside the circuit. A considerable amount of
temperature is formed by the electrochemical
response, which can be applied by an assimilated
temperature management system. Since it receipts
a long time to spread its functioning temperature,
the most excellent applications for SOFCs are uses
in electricity and heat generated like inactive power
plants, secondary power supplies [8]. Start-up time
difficulties could be explaining by using super-
capacitor cells for some time of action in portable
applications. Accordingly, electrodes have been
planning to have separate practical layers for
restructuring, present collection or electro catalysis.
The benefit of internal restructuring is that it could
significantly reduce the equilibrium of system
charge but carbon removal onto the anode from
carbonaceous gasses may destroy performance or
even terminate the electrode.
Throughout recent years, other kinds of
SOFCs have also been industrializing which have
the automated backing on the anode side, however
not necessarily the anode substrate. In all these
circumstances, the substrate is continually porous
to permit gas transport to and from the anode. The
resources used for such substrates are alloys or
metals, compounds like the predictable Ni/8YSZ
cermet, or even resistant ceramics [9]. This kinds of
fuel cells are the smallest component constructed
for the Bloom Energy Server. The solid oxide fuel
cells are then mixing to form a stack of fuel cells,
and numerous stacks make a Server module which
is known as Bloom Box’. Four to six elements
mixed to construct one 250-320kW Energy Server
that generates power in a footmark roughly
comparable to that of half a standard 33.52-foot
shipping container.
Picture Source: - Adapted from [10]
In anode substrate, other cell mechanisms
are put down in the categorization (A-E-C) anode–
electrolyte–cathode. Usually, the coatings are
recognizing by shade printing, wet powder
scattering, slurry coating or distinctive plasma
spraying. If the anode substrate is preparing the
anode substance (Ni/8YSZ) [11]. It has been
creating useful for the electrochemical presentation
to relate a superfluous anode layer. It was having a
better microstructure and consequently better
electro-catalytic exchange of the fuel gas. The
coatings characteristically have widths of 5.25–
19.75μm for the anode, 9.85–19.95μm for the
electrolyte, and 49.65–79.95μm for the cathode.
Cathodes demonstrated to be problematic from the
perspective of selecting the accurate material. At
present-day, some cathodes are made from
electronically directing oxides or assorted

electronically directing and ion-conducting
ceramics. The most usual cathode substance of the
latter type is strontium-doped-lanthanum manganite
The anode essential is an excellent catalyst
for the fuel oxidation (H2, CO), constant in the
decreasing atmosphere of the fuel, automatically
conducting, and should have enough absorbency
to tolerate the conveyance of the fuel to and the
carriage of the fuel products oxidation absent from
the electrolyte interface. Where the reaction of the
oxidative fuel takes place. Another wants to contain
matching of its thermal extension constant with that
of the electrolyte and intersect. It also includes the
reliability of porosity for gas infusion, chemical
permanency with the electrolyte and applicability to
use with adaptable impurities and fuels [13]. This
kind of fuel cells is the well-organized devices yet
developed, that can transform chemical to electrical
energy. Anode and Cathode and the electrolyte are
preparing ceramic resources. Meanwhile, the high
functioning heat avoids the use of inexpensive
metals. The significant benefit of the SOFC is that
the electrolyte is dense, and there are no pumps
compulsory to flow the warm electrolyte. The anode
holds nickel, for recovering electron catalysis and
conduction. The functioning heat is between 650
and 975 °C (approx.), reliant on the generation of
this kind of fuel cell.
Conversely, thermal cycling can cause
cracking of the brittle ceramic machinery. Both
carbon and hydrogen monoxide work as fuels.
Some hydrocarbon fuels like natural gas or
gasoline can be applying in SOFC [12]. Besides,
cost efficiency is continuously a feature for
commercialization. Ni-YSZ cermets are the most
usually used anode resources for this type of fuel
cells. Nickel (Ni) is an excellent catalyst for
oxidation of fuel. Conversely, it keeps an
extraordinary thermal extension constant (12.94 ×
10 -6) °C, and displays scratching of microstructure
due to metallic aggregation over grain progression
at cell action heats. The electrochemical procedure
also makes the temperature compulsory to retain
the fuel cell temperature and drive the restructuring
reaction procedure. As long as air and fuel are
available, it remains to alter chemical energy into
electrical energy, delivering an electric current
openly at the SOFC.
Picture Source: - Adapted from [14]
These catalytic possessions are exploited in
the known internal restructuring SOFCs that can
work on fuels collected of mixtures of water and
methane. While nickel (Ni) is an outstanding
methane-steam-reforming and hydrogen oxidation
catalyst, it too catalyzes the construction of carbon
from hydrocarbons (CnH2n+2) under dipping

circumstances. Unless enough amounts of vapour
exist along with the hydrocarbon (CnH2n+2) to
eliminate carbon from the nickel (Ni) surface, the
anode might be damaged. The oxidant vapour is
oxygen or air at the SOFC cathode, and the
electrochemical decrease of O2 needs a series of
organic reactions and involves the transmission of
several electrons [15]. The cathode of SOFC must
fulfil the necessities of high catalytic action for
oxygen particle dissociation and oxygen decrease.
It is also applicable for the good electronic
conductivity, dimensional and chemical stability in
atmospheres which encountered throughout cell
construction and cell action, thermal extension
match with another cell modules.
V. COMPONENTS:-
A. Anode:-
The anode of SOFCs is a cermet prepared
of YSZ skeleton and metallic nickel. There is some
ohmic divergence damage at the interface between
the electrolyte and anode. It has been presented in
order to overcome this difficulty. The zirconia helps
to prevent sintering of the metal atoms and delivers
a thermal growth coefficient similar to that of the
electrolyte.
Picture Source:- Adapted from [16]
B. Cathode:-
The SOFC cathode is also permitting the
rapid mass carriage of product and reactant gases.
La0.84Sr0.26 (Strontium-doped lanthanum
manganite) is a p-type semiconductor which most
commonly used material in these fuel cells. The
benefits are mostly ostensible in cells operating at
around 620ºC to 660 ºC and as well as the LSCF,
Perovskite, LSC and n-type semiconductors are
superior electro catalysts as the formal of the art
LSM because they are integrated conductors.
C. Electrolyte:-
Zirconia is exceptionally constant in both
the dropping and oxidizing situations that are
experiencing at the cathode and anode. The
capability to conduct O= ions is carried about by the
zirconia fluorite crystal structure in which Y3+ ions
swap some of the Zr4+ ions [18]. While ion
interchange happens, a quantity of oxide-ion sites
changes empty because of three O= ions swapping
four O= ions. Oxide-ion carrying happens between
positions placed at tetrahedral places in the
perovskite lattice.
D. Sealing Material:-
The primary concern with SOFCs is the
technique of sealing the ceramic materials to find
gas rigidity, mostly with planar design. The
extensive heat ranges pose essential difficulties.
The standard approach is to use glasses that take
transition heat close to the functioning cellular
temperature. A specific difficulty is the relocation of

silica from such glasses instigating degradation in
performance of the cells.
E. Interconnect Material:-
Metals can be executing as intersects, but
they are costly “Inconel” kind stainless steels.
Expansion of new alloys leads to destroying the
cathode with Cr leading to its removal at the three-
stage boundary and affecting quick cathode de-
activation. Metal interrelates also be prepared to
form oxide coatings which can bound their
electrical conductivity and performs as an obstacle
to mass conveyance.
Picture Source:- Adapted from [17]
VI. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES:-
One of the most significant advantages of
SOFC is the higher effectiveness rate since fuel
cells can reach over 85% energy effectiveness.
SOFCs high functional heat, so the objects used as
elements are thermally tested. SOFC has several
benefits over traditional originators and other kinds
of fuel cells. Due to the sectional nature of solid fuel
cells, they propose suppleness in the arrangement
of power generation capability [19]. Lastly, CO2
emission is reducing significantly. The SOFC is
very much environment-friendly, and it decreases
CO2 and dangerous pollutant emissions. SOFCs
are working at high heat, costly accelerators such
as Pt or Ru are evading. The SOFC is expressively
lighter and more compressed. Along with its
efficiency as a fuel, H2 is non-polluting. The only
side effect of hydrogen when it burns is water and
heat.
There are some disadvantages, also there.
Initially, a considerable quantity of currently
accessible SOFC technology is in the model stage
and not yet authenticated. Hydrogen is costly to
generate and not broadly available. One of the
most significant disadvantages is the nonexistence
of infrastructure, which is to support the supply of
hydrogen. It can also be keeping at enough
temperatures and compressions in a tank covering
a carbon absorber and metal-hydride absorber.
However, these are presently very cost-effective for
the maximum industry.
VII. CONCLUSION:-
This report is describing soil oxide fuel cells.
The components of solid oxide fuel cells exhibit
satisfactorily high electro catalytic action and oxide
ion conductivity only at high heats. The high action
heat induces several concerns including high
manufacturing and action prices, fast performance
deprivation and secondary shutdown cycles. This
kind of fuel cells is all-solid electrochemical tools
containing three critical components like cathode,
anode and electrolyte, which are also describing in
this report. The cathode anode and electrolyte are
composed of ceramic material and massive
operating heats. It can lead to substantial
constancy issues which harmfully affect the
performance of the cell.

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