University Psychology Essay: Behavior Models and Stress Management

This essay delves into the Health Belief Model (HBM) and the Transtheoretical Model (TTM), two prominent frameworks used in psychology to understand and influence health behaviors. The report begins with an abstract summarizing the essay's core focus: the comparison of these models in the context of health behavior and stress management, particularly among university students. The introduction highlights the prevalence of stress in universities and emphasizes the importance of positive health behaviors. The HBM, which focuses on perceived susceptibility, seriousness, benefits, and barriers, is discussed in detail, along with its limitations. The Transtheoretical Model (TTM), emphasizing stages of change, is then presented, including its focus on an individual's readiness to adopt new health behaviors. The essay proceeds to compare and contrast the two models, highlighting their individual strengths and weaknesses. Finally, the application of these models in stress management among university students is explored, referencing research on how HBM and TTM can guide interventions to reduce stress and promote well-being. The conclusion reiterates the models' significance in shaping health behavior and emphasizes their role in designing effective interventions.

Running head: PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology
Name of the Student
Name of the University
Author note

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Abstract
The report involves the discussion and comparison of two behaviour models that are used
to study human behaviour and perceptions in adopting healthy behaviour. These paradigms
explain health and guide strategies and interventions that are used to reduce health issues and
promote wellbeing. In this report, Health Belief Model and Transtheoretical Model were
discussed that act as theoretical framework for changing behaviour. As discussed, university
students experience high levels of stress and unhealthy lifestyles. A literature review was
conducted that illustrated that these theories guide behaviour in changing perceptions towards
health and in making healthy lifestyle choices.
Keywords: behaviour models; Health Belief Model; Transtheoretical Model; stress
management; health and wellbeing

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Introduction
Epidemic levels of stress are raging through Australian universities with more than 70%
students reported psychological stress where one in three contemplated suicide or self-harm
(Bell, Rajendran & Theiler, 2012). Students need to get engaged in positive health behaviour to
avoid illness and maintain good health. Health models or paradigms are used for explaining
health and its relationship to stress management. Therefore, the essay discusses health models
use to understand, explain health behaviour and guide strategies for stress management and
promotion of health. ‘The health behaviour models help students to make healthy lifestyle
choices reducing stress and promoting wellness.’
Health Belief Model (HBM)
This model is a conceptual framework that is used to guide disease prevention and health
promotion explaining the changes in health-related behaviour. This theory explains that health
behaviour is predicted by four major factors: perceived susceptibility and perceived seriousness
to health threat, barriers and benefits of undertaking health behaviour guiding actions (Orji,
Vassileva & Mandryk, 2012). This model provide an approach to understand clearly cause of
behaviour that is quite necessary for predicting change which in turn is necessary for influencing
health behaviour. This model helps to know that health choices are based on an individual’s
rational thought, but also habits, emotions, personal preference and social conditioning.
Therefore, it is an eye-opener that is effective in social teaching methods in healthy habits.
However, this model has certain limitations as it is limited to health risking behaviour. This
model does not provide understanding of social, environmental and personal factors influencing
health conditions as it does not take into account individual determinants, habitual behaviour that

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inform decision-making accepted to recommended actions (Skinner, Tiro & Champion, 2015).
This model is descriptive rather than explanatory and does not provide a strategy to change
health-related behaviours. For disease prevention, benefits, barriers and perceived susceptibility
are consistently associated with desired health behaviour and for the most effective use; the
model should integrate other models accounting for environmental context suggesting change
(Maddux & Kleiman, 2012).
Transtheoretical model (TTM)
This model is a model of behaviour change that accesses the readiness of an individual to
act to new health behaviour by providing strategies and changing processes guiding individual.
This model focuses on an individual’s decision-making and intentional change operating on the
assumption that behaviour is not changed decisively and quickly. Instead, behaviour change is a
habitual and cyclic process having different constructs and behavioural theories to its five stages
being most effective. As this model takes personal behaviour into consideration, it ignores social
context and moreover, there is no set criteria for determining the person’s change stages or time
needed for change or for how long an individual remain in stage. In addition, this model
addresses individuals at various stages of decision-making process resulting in tailored
interventions for motivating and in assessing current change stages and accounting for relapse in
decision-making process (Prochaska, 2013).
Comparison of two models
Both the models are aimed at protecting individuals from illness, predict, understand and
affect health behaviours and ability to change. HBM is cognitively based focusing on mental
processes pertaining to change in health behaviour and does not take emotional health

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component into consideration. On the other hand, TTM is concerned with behavioural aspects
specifying readiness of an individual or attitudinal awareness stages towards health behaviour
change. However, both models are focused on behaviour and self-efficacy, HBM focus on
constructs promoting change and TTM emphasizes on belief stages and attitude antecedent in
changing ability (Coulson et al., 2016).
HBM focuses on self-efficacy and perceived risks; TTM focuses on readiness to receive.
TTM uses experiences and stages of individuals into categories whereas value-based constructs
are involved in HBM generally applied to interventions and TTM is applied to tailored
interventions at individual level. TTM is based on readiness of individual and HBM concerned
with individual beliefs and attitudes. Concisely, both the models focus on awareness and self-
efficacy (Baldwin, 2013).
The models are used for understanding the health behaviour aiming to recognize the
variables influencing behaviour of people and how a person is likely to get engaged in a
particular behaviour. From the psychological perspective, health behaviour describes the actions
that are associated with development, prevention or predisposing factors for any condition or
particular disease. Categories of health behaviour including diet, physical activity, drug or
alcohol consumption and medication compliance are assumed to be behaviours that are greatly
linked to health outcomes that requires alterations or eradication of particular behaviours. These
models further provide an understanding of how individual lifestyle impact health over life
course. However, these models do not explain why people behave and have differing ways of
articulation of behaviour across time, place, ethnicity or gender (Wu & Edmondson, 2017).

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Application of health models in stress management among university students
As discussed in the above section that stress is highly prevalent among university
students, it is important to manage stress and promote health and wellbeing. The above discussed
models can be applied for stress reduction, management and provide solutions to improve their
health.
According to King et al., (2012) HBM can be employed to manage stress for explaining,
predicting and influencing health behavior in college students. The components of HBM are
applied to the study like perceived barriers, benefits and cues to action. Perceived benefits in
stress management include listening to music, exercising or running and talking to someone.
Perceived barriers in using techniques include lack of time in using techniques, got up in the
moment and embarrassed to use techniques in private, lack of awareness and ways to use it.
According to Rizer et al., (2016) perceived mindfulness practice benefits are positively related to
meditation. Perceived stress is positively related to perceived severity and susceptibility to stress
problems. Communication of perceived benefits of mindfulness practices opposed by stress-
related problems and development of health promotion messages among college students
encourage lifelong health benefits through mindfulness meditation. According to Bistricky et al.,
(2017) HBM components predicted variability in intention and promoting willingness for better
health outcomes. HBM can be employed for greater SRT use and dissemination among college
students.
According to Rabalais, (2015) stress is related to behavior and thoughts that specifically
focused on health. HBM aid psychologists by providing them information for reducing stress and
irrational health beliefs related to negative health outcomes among 18-45 year old including

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college students. According to Bamber & Schneider, (2016) out of 40, 33 studies and 25 of 34
studies showed significant decrease in stress through mindfulness meditation practice. Out of 57
studies, 12 studies reported use of theoretical framework that crated attention, awareness and
self-reflection in turn increasing the ability for regulation of emotional response and increase in
learning capacity.
According to Horiuchi et al., (2010) TTM can be applied to behavior change through the
processes of covert and overt activities that students used for facilitating forwards stage
transition. Situation-specific confidence represented by self-efficacy helped to practice targeted
behavior. TTM acted as framework for stress management, coping and perceived stress.
Relationship between stages of change for stress management and perceived stress management
as well as coping was measured provided convincing results. Korean students in action and
maintenance stages in TTM were more frequentwhere tthey cope well with stressful situations as
compared to first three stages. Students showed less perceived stress as compared to other stages.
Stage of change for stress management is related to personal perceptions of one’s ability to
manage stressful conditions. According to Evangelia & Spiridon, (2011) overwhelming stressful
situations in undergraduate students can be described through TTM that is a model of behavior
change for effective positive behavior change. The self-efficacy concept in TTM is used for
stress management where decisional balance between pros and cons of adopting practices of
stress management and processes of change for progressing to maintenance and action stages.
During the stages of change, self-efficacy increases up to maintenance stage interplaying
between pros and cons of stress management at stages of preparation and precontemplation as
compared to other stages.

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The subsequent studies evaluate the physical activity and stress reduction in college
students through the use of TTM. According to Callaghan, Khalil & Morres, (2010) TTM is a
modest predictor of stages of behaviour change among young people where its variables shape
movement, self-efficacy, behavioural processes and pros over time being strongest predictors of
stress reduction. TTM is not a strong predictor for exercise prediction as those remaining active
at follow-up and baseline and inactive (contemplation or precontemplation) to maintenance stage
(active) as one anticipate through stages of TTM. King et al., (2013) studied the importance of
vigorous physical activity affected perceived benefits, cues to actions, barriers through social
support (parent involvement). Correlation between cues to exercise and perceived benefits was
associated with vigorous physical exercise involvement thereby reducing stress and promoting
their wellbeing. According to Tuah et al., (2011) TTM can be used for physical exercise and
dietary changes for weight loss, emotional stress management affecting synergistic multiple
behaviour promoting wellbeing and health. TTM SOC (stages of change) act as guideline or
framework in designing of lifestyle modifications strategies as compared to usual care.
Conclusion
From the above discussion, it can be concluded that behavior models act as framework or
guidelines for promoting health and well-being among individuals. These models help to
understand behavior and barriers to healthy living. The literature review conducted for
illustrating the application of two major behavior models like TTM and HBM depicted that they
act as theoretical framework for designing interventions for influencing positive health
outcomes. In this discussion, models have been used for stress management among university
(college) students. From the literature review, it can be concluded that these models are used to

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reduce stress by helping individuals change their perceptions of stressors, helping them to cope
with it and improve their ability to manage stress and promote health and wellbeing.

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References
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