Construction Technology 4: Tyremax Building Steel Construction Report

This report provides a comprehensive analysis of the Tyremax low-rise warehouse building, focusing on its steel construction. The report details the structural system, including portal frames, and typical members such as corner columns, endwall grits, and frame columns. It examines the loads acting on the structure, calculation of member strengths, and constructibility aspects, including the use of computer-aided design tools. The analysis includes site visits, photographs, and 3D renderings. The report also discusses various composite structures used in the Australian construction industry, such as steel-concrete, timber-concrete, and reinforced fiber composites. The assignment covers structural member-to-member connection details and wind loading calculations. The project followed a structured project plan, with clearly defined roles for each group member. The report concludes with an analysis of the building's structural frame and a discussion of the forces it must withstand.

Construction Technology Group Assignment- Tyremax Building

Contents
Introduction......................................................................................................................................................3
Progress Report................................................................................................................................................3
Structural System and typical membership.....................................................................................................11
Loads..............................................................................................................................................................12
Calculations of strength..................................................................................................................................12
Constructibility aspects...................................................................................................................................13
Project Plan....................................................................................................................................................13
Report.............................................................................................................................................................15
The Analysis of the Building..........................................................................................................................15
Height and Clear Span....................................................................................................................................18
The Main Frame.............................................................................................................................................19
Restraint Positions..........................................................................................................................................19
Common composite structures utilized in the Australian construction industry.............................................20
Introduction....................................................................................................................................................20
Discussion......................................................................................................................................................20
Steel-Concrete Composite (SCC)...................................................................................................................21
Composite Slabs.............................................................................................................................................23
Composite Beams Flexural Strength..............................................................................................................24
Composite Beams...........................................................................................................................................25
Composite Columns and Frames....................................................................................................................25
Timber-Concrete-Composite (TCC)...............................................................................................................26
Reinforced Fiber Composites (RFPs).............................................................................................................27
Reinforced Polymer Composites (RPCs)........................................................................................................28
References......................................................................................................................................................29

Group Members and Student Numbers
Group member name Student Number Signature
Introduction
Steel is a versatile material that is widely used in the building and construction sector, as well as
other industries. Steel structures are constructed using steel as the main raw material and these
buildings excel in terms of ease of construction, long life span, low costs, and energy savings. Metal
structures have high durability and the versatility of steel makes it a premium and first choice
material in construction. In this paper, the Tyremax low rise warehouse building is the focus of the
study; the building is located on Baile Road, in Canningvale, Perth. This project entails an
evaluation of the Tyremax building, a low rise warehouse building with two floors/ storeys to house
offices, and largely a single free standing warehouse. The evaluation involves a discussion of the
structural system typical members and their roles, the loads on the structure, and a computation of
common buildings’ members strengths of some of the buildings’ common members. The paper also
discusses the connection details of structural members along with the constructibility aspects of the
building using steel. The assignment involves making a visit to the building site with some photos
taken (see Illustrations 1 to 10) and design images as well.
Progress Report
The warehouse building with offices was visited and some photos taken to show the structural
components of the building.

Structural System and typical membership
Steel is used as the main construction and support material; the entire Eave height of the building is
made of structural steel that provides the main support for the building. At the end of the corners is
the Corner column, made of structural steel and along the length of the sides of the building (width)
is the Endwall Grit, also made of steel. Towards the rooftop is a Endwall Rafter and along the width
of the building are Endwall Columns, also made of steel. The front and back of the building have a

Sidewall Grit steel material and along the entire length are Frame Columns (spaced out). Rod
bracings are used along the length to provide extra support; they join with the frame column and are
diagonally placed. The entrance has a steel framed opening jamb while at its top (horizontally
placed) is the framed opening header. Along the length of the building are supporting columns and
from the centerline of one steel column to the next is a sidewall bay. On the roof are Eave Struts
running along the length of the warehouse building. Running along the width of the building are
Frame rafters that also provide support for roof members and gives the building rigidity while also
supporting the purlins and roof members’ weight. These work to produce a rigid steel frame
building
The skeleton structure of the building is made of various steel structures and component members
that ensure strength and rigidity for the entire building. Trusses made up of strong steel members
connected using hinged connections at their end for the main roof members. These are made of light
steel members that give strength and rigidity and support the roof weight while also providing a
framework for the buildings’ top covering.
Loads
The building has vertical loads that act downwards and the loads are borne by the beams which are
embedded in a concrete foundation to bear the loads from the roof (vertical) and other roof
members. The beams are the main load bearing structural members of the building. The weight of
the roof is borne by the roof beam, which is in turn supported by the roof columns. The columns are
held together by frames that give them strength and further rigidity to the entire building while the
truss helps support the roof’s weight and its members. In between the beams is the wall and the wall
bearing system that also bears the buildings’ weight (most of its weight). The load of the slabs for
the sections with two storeys are transferred to the the columns and the wall bearing system through
the main beams to the concrete foundation; this weight is then dissipated to the supporting soil
underneath, meaning that the soil has to be strong enough to bear the weight of the building and its
members. The building frame and structure also bears external forces including wind shear and
precipitation; wind shear movements impact a lot of load on the steel structure and so the building
structural members must bear this load.

Calculations of strength
The building must be built to withstand wind shear forces and this requires computing the basic
wind velocity, mean wind velocity, turbulence, and turbulence intensity as well as peak velocity
pressure in order to determine the strengths of component members to be used.
Structural member to member connection details
The building components and structural members are designed using portal frames to assemble
together the columns, beams, and other structural members. These are used because they confer
minimal obstruction to architectural elements and layout of the building. The building is a low rose
one and so rigid frames become the best alternative because they ensure the highest efficiency and
to ensure maximum frame action is attained. There are fully welded connections that have stiff ends
are used extensively, especially on the roof and rafter members. Knee connection with the end
plates welded are also used for connecting members as are welded T- connections and bolted T-
connections.
The structure will experience two main types of loading; gravity loads and structural loads. The
structural loads include both live and dead loads while lateral loads are made up of earthquake and
wind loads: The loads may act alone, or more commonly, together. Due to its weight, the structure
experiences pressure to line loads given from the formula
Line load = Pressure Load x Length
Resultant load = Line load x length
Free body diagrams on main loads on structure beam

Equation
Σ f (x) = 0, Σ f (y) = 0, and Σ M = 0
Σ f (y): = Ay + Cy- Resultant
MA: CY. l2 – Resultant.l1
Ay = Resultant – Cy
Wind loading
Computed using the relationship
F = A x P x Cd
In which F = wind load force
A= object projected area
Cd=coefficient of drag
P = wind pressure
A = length x width (50*24) = 1200 m2
Wind pressure P = 0.00256 x (25)2 = 1.6
Cd = 0.8
F = A x P x Cd
F = 1200 x 1.6 x 0.8
F = 1536
696.72 kgs
Constructibility aspects
Constructibility is an important aspect when selecting the material to use for construction and refers
to a project management technique for construction review form start to completion (Zhong and
Wu, 2015). The constructibility of the building requires that design is done using computer aids
such as AutoCAD and BIM (building information modeling) to evaluate all structural members. The
building design must take into account load bearing and the weights of structural components as

well as wind and wind shear forces. Using tools such as BIM ensures these are captured and a
building designed efficiently, considering its entire life span (Wang, Chan and Zhang, 2016; Emmitt
and Gorse, 2010).
Project Plan
To undertake this project effectively, the team sought to use project management principles,
specifically, using a Gantt chart to plan and execute the project and using a WBS as depicted below;
To ensure participation and learning for every team member, the roles were divided as depicted in
the table below;
Name Student Number Role
Team leadership
Research on the building to be used
Research on historical aspects of steel composite
structures use in Australian construction sector
Project planning and monitoring
Record keeping
Taking photos and images
Research on historical aspects of wood steel
composite structures and their use in Australian
construction sector
Report compilation
Calculation of forces acting on building
Research on historical aspects of concrete and
steel composite structures and their use in
Australian construction sector
Proof Reading
Structural rendering of the warehouse steel
structure in 3-D
Research on historical aspects of other materials
and structural components use in Australian
construction sector

Report
The Analysis of the Building
The analysis of the Tyremax Building was done both visually and using computers, where the visual
structural analysis resulted in the main frame of the building being reproduced using computer
aided software. Based on the initial visual analysis (from observation and images taken), the team
concludes that the general structure of the Tyrmemax building is a portal steel structural frame as
the structure spans between supports and relies on fixed joints having the capability to resist
moments where the horizontal trusses meet with the the vertical supports . The materials used in the
building is mainly galvanized steel with reinforced concrete, especially in the construction of the
floor (suspended floor where the offices are located). The joints are very strong and rigid and can
absorb bending forces, especially those due to wind loading. The forces on the joints (moments)
from the roof rafters can be very strong and so some of that force is transferred to the columns and
as such, the rafter sizes can be reduced and the span increased. The portal frame as used in the
building ensures high strength and efficient in terms of construction and materials use for wide span
buildings as the Tyremax Building. Typically, warehouses are constructed using portal frames and
are also suitable for low rise or single storey buildings and where the floors are not spanning the
entire length of the building for multiple or more than a single storey building as in the Tyremax
building. The buildings 3-D rendering is illustrated in the figure below;

The components of a portal frame are illustrated below;

Common composite structures used in the ACS (the Australian construction Sector)
Introduction
Among the fastest growing sectors in the Australia economy is the construction sector; within this
sector, the commercial construction sector has experienced the fastest growth in the recent past with
9.3% (in year 2018), signifying the rapid growth of the sector and underlining its importance. The
ACS contributes 8% of Australia’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP), employing some 1.1 million
people and one sector that achieved notable growth in the prefabricated construction, that grew by
5% in 2018(Cartwright, 2019). Among the more widely used materials in the ACS is steel, whose
use in Australia goes back a long way. As in the example building analyzed in the previous section,
steel is widely used and preferred in the construction industry for its versatility, strength, and ability
to provide rigid structures and blend well with architectural designs for buildings (Senaratne et al.,
2017). Composite structures refer to a set of elements that are interconnected and collaborate in
order to achieve a given purpose with every element having a defined role within the collaboration.
Usually, structural members consist of two members (sometimes more) of two ( sometimes more)
different material types collectively referred to as composite elements. In construction, the most
widely used composite element utilized in the construction sector is concrete and steel composite,
although there are other types components use in the construction sector, including steel and timer,
plastic and concrete, timber and concrete, and glass and steel composite structures (Brauner, 2013) .
This report gives a report on the rendering of the warehouse steel structure used for this exercise,
and then goes further to discuss the common composite structures utilized in the ACS.
Discussion
The vast bulk of Australian new homes and buildings are built using light frame methods that
include the use of steel or timber (Build Asutralia, 2019). However, other methods are used, such as
structural insulated panels (SIP’s) or even straw bales can also be used for their roofs and walls. For
a long time, the timber frames used in construction in Australia were cut and framed at the
construction site and this still happens today, albeit to a minimal degree. The modern approach is to
have the frames cut and measured and then assembled elsewhere, being brought to the construction
site to be fitted into place. The types of frames used and the composite elements used in
constructing the building depends on a variety of factors, including the wind loading (wind
strength), the location where the building is being done, and the purpose and nature of the building
(Dunant et al., 2018). These factors also determine the bracing of the building; bracing is the
process of adding of elements to help strengthen the frame using plywood inserts installed at

external corners, or through the use of cross braces or diagonal steel strapping. Once the framing is
complete, the sliding doors and windows are installed (Theodossopoulos, 2012).
The use of composites is very common in the Australian Construction Industry; they are widely
used in engineering and design because of their superior performances. A composite structure
consisting of two layers, for example, timber -timber, timber -concrete, timber - steel and steel-
concrete is very common in the ACS (Williams, 2019). When two materials such as these are used,
the result is a stronger structure because each of the two materials is used properly. In the steel-
concrete composites, the steel carries tensile stress while concrete carries the compressive stress,
enhancing the overall systems’ performance. The composite action is attained when the two
materials used are connected in layers using shear connectors such as steel shear buds, nails, or
bolts (Tornabene, 2017).
Steel-Concrete Composite (SCC)
Steel has been utilized as a building and construction material for over half a century and continues
to be used widely and has experienced a boom in recent years because of the several advantages it
provides builders and home owners (Toghroli et al., 2016). Post Second World War, there was a
shortage of building materials in Australia, for instance, timber and this resulted in steel being used
as a wall framing material; a material known as ‘Econosteel’. This material was principally made of
uncoated steel sections dipped in bituminous paint, however, despite its name; it was six times more
costly compared to timber when used for construction. Between the 1960s and the 1980s, steel
frame construction experienced a boom, starting with the 1960s and began when 50 steel homes
were built on the Australian Gold Coast on reclaimed land. Stucco was used to finish galvanized
frames and 1968 saw the mass use of steel frames in house construction where 1.2 mm thick
galvanized steel was used and this method continued for over 20 years. The advent and availability
of high tensile steel coated using zinc-aluminum alloy was a major driver of new framing systems.
The steel was light weight and strong, as well as exhibiting excellent resistance to corrosion. Its
versatility made it very popular (steel) . in modern times, advances in computer technologies have
resulted in greater efficiency, accuracy, and cost effectiveness in steel cutting, its prefabrication, and
detailing of frames and this has made steel among the most cost effective and versatile materials
used in building and construction in Australia (Dynamic Steel Frame, 2019).
Most of the building systems utilized in Australia are based on a common formula with just a few
variations, regardless of the geographic, climatic, and occupant factors (lifestyle). The majority of
new buildings in Australia use this common formula, mainly driven by skills and materials
availability, speed and ease of construction, and individual or community perceptions. The buildings
are characterized by footing systems used to transfer the structures’ weight to the foundation,

usually soil. The footing systems are designed so as to fit different geotechnical conditions and offer
sufficient building tie-down based on the sites’ wind classification (Fang et al., 2017). Lightweight
framed systems have the least embodied energy and site impact and are characterized by a broad
variety of steel roofing systems that include screw piles, and steel piers that are adjustable on a
simple pad of concrete, pole and space frame systems, or bored columns. For concrete footings that
are slab integrated, substantial excavation is required while waffle pod slabs offer better solutions
based on geotechnical reasons since additional concrete and steel is used but this should be done
carefully to minimize embodied energy wastage (Yao and Li, 2019). Steel-concrete composites are
used in floors, especially for light weight suspended floor systems; these are used commonly
because they compete favorably with steel and timer framed floors and are capable of significantly
reducing side impacts. Lightweight steel frames are used because while having higher embodied
energy, can easily be recycled at the end of the lifespan of the building (Reardon and Downton,
2013).
The major benefit is using composite elements in construction is each of the elements (different
materials) have properties have unique and complementary properties that are combined to produce
a single better performing unit (structurally) than its separate component parts (Stewart, 2010). In
the Australian Construction sector, among the most common composite element used is the steel-
concrete composite. As an individual material, concrete does work well it the context of
compression; however, concrete is less resistant to tension. Steel, on the other hand, is very strong
in the context of tension and can easily absorb tensile forces, even if steel is used in just small
amounts in the entire structure. As such, a concrete steel structural component takes advantage of
concretes’ compressive strength and steels’ tensile strength. When used together, the result is a
lightweight and highly efficient structural unit used commonly for structures such as bridges,
multiple storey buildings, and commercial structures such as low rise warehouses and buildings
(Amadio, Bedon and Fasan, 2017). Among the most common composite elements used in
construction in Australia, made of steel and concrete are composite slabs, used for floors and other
structural elements in buildings.
Composite construction has the tendency or reducing the amount of structural steel utilized and thus
enhances greater sustainability aspects in construction (Fu, 2018). The Australian (and New
Zealand) construction industry largely uses composites, mostly steel and concrete composite for
construction. This composite ensures steel frames that have the robustness of concrete frames
because they possess the added benefit of being light-weight that ensure more structural loads can
be borne by a single structure, including multiple floors while enhancing the speed of construction
and achieving structural rigidness. The Australian Standard for Concrete Structures (AS1480-1974)
and the Australian Standard for Steel Structures (AS1250-1975) govern the use of concrete and steel

composites in building, in addition to the composite steel-concrete standard under AS1480-1974
(Standards Australia, 2019). At present, the composite structures standards are covered, albeit in
piece meal, under the standards AS3600-2009, AS2327.1-2003, and AS4100-2012 (Patel et al.,
2018).
Composite Slabs
Typically, composite slabs are made through the use of reinforced concrete cast on top of steel
decking; this can be trapezoidal or re-entrant steel profile. The decking plays the role of form-work
while also being the construction working platform; further, it (the decking) acts as an external
reinforcement during the complex stage (Ferrer, Marimon and Casafont, 2018). Commonly, slabs
are made up of concrete because of the mass of concrete as well as its stiffness that is useful in
reducing vibrations and deflections of the floor, in addition to achieving the requisite thermal
storage and fire protection objectives. Underneath the slab, steel is used as the supporting material
because it has superior properties in terms of the ratio of strength: weight as well as the ratio of
stiffness : weight; steel is also used because of its ease of handling; it’s flexible and versatile and
can be applied in several aspects in construction. Structural design for bridges and buildings is
concerned primarily with providing load bearing and support horizontal surfaces. The decks, except
for certain long span structures, the decks/ floors are made of reinforced concrete since there is no
other material that offers the benefits of low cost, corrosion resistance, high strength structures
resistant to both fires and abrasion (Johnson, 2007). For spans that exceed a few meters, it is best to
have the slabs supported on beams, walls, or ribs, instead of thickening the wall. If the walls and
ribs/ beams are also made of concrete, the monolithic building structure makes it possible for
significant slab breadth to act as a top flange of its supporting beam.
Designing of floor slabs is based on manufacturer design guides and include the use of computer
and computer design software and must conform to the AS3600 Australian Concrete Structures
Code. The design of concrete slabs places emphasis on capacity tables in designing decking that
supports concrete in its plastic state and on its composite state relating to loads, decking thickness,
slab, and the number of spans (Rehman et al., 2016). The longitudinal shear connections between
concrete and deck are rationalized for various decks as vertical shear designs at ends that are simply
supported. The typical building floor plan generally has primary East-West spanning steel work
while the precast concrete floors spanning in the North-South direction as illustrated below;

There are various steel-concrete composite types that can be classified and include the composite
beam that has a concrete slab in situ, precast reinforced concrete planks with a topping slab in situ
made of concrete, complex beam floors that utilize concrete elements that have been prefabricated,
and composite beams that have metal decking that is trapezoidal with a concrete slab n-situ. The
two limit states most important to structural engineers include strength and serviceability (Hossain
et al., 2016).
Flexural Strength of Composite Beams
The strength of the composite steel concrete depends upon the steel, concrete, and the shear
connectors. If the strength of the concrete slab is greater than the steel beams, then the concrete
slab contains within it the the plastic neutral axis and in such a case, the net flexural strength is
ascertained based on a single couple. At spans exceeding ten meters, especially where steel has a
susceptibility to losing strength due to events such as fire, there is no problem because steel is
cheaper than concrete. Previously, it was common for the steel work to be first designed to bear the
entire concrete slab load/ weight and the forces acting on it (loading). However, this changed
around the 1950 with the development of shear connectors which allowed the shear to be connected
to the beam; the result is the T-Beam action long used on concrete structures (Liu, Bradford and
Ataei, 2017). This composite beam as used in the rest of this discussion is the T-beam, as well as for
in situ pre-stressed beams, acting together with concrete, between building beams and brick walls
supporting them. Further, it can also allude to the composite structure between a shed framed using
steel and the cladding. Trapezoidal decking is normally 50 to 60 mm deep and can remain
unsupported over a 3000 mm span. Trapezoidal profiles with a depth of 80 mm have the capability

of having 4500 mm spans. Deep decking consists of trapezoidal decking exceeding 200 mm in
depth and if necessary, extra support can be put in the decking troughs with a possible span of up to
6000 mm unsupported (Rana et al., 2018). Usually, galvanized steel is utilized in decking and is
normally a just one mm in thickness and have stiffeners added in order to avoid local buckling; this
ensures that the upper flange are stiff enough and also to provide support for items suspended from
the soffit that are of relatively light weight. Embossments are rolled into the profile of the decking
to trap re-entrant profile parts in the concrete member in order to enale interlocking. In places where
the composite slabs require openings, the construction stage is the best to form them as opposed to
cutting concrete sections. Openings of up to 300 mm2 do not require extra provisions, however,
those of up to 700 mm2 need extra opening area reinforcement. Openings excess of 700 mm2
requires steel trimming s for support.
Composite Beams
This is another structural member frequently used as a composite structure and includes down-stand
beams and shallow floors. Down-stand beams are connected to the composite slab through the use
of welded shear studs that go through the decks. Alternatively, they can be constructed using precast
concrete slabs sitting on top of the steel beams’ top flange of the steel beam; a structure that has an
effective span range of between 6000 and 12000 mm, although some variations can reach 20000
mm or exceed this length. Shallow floors are those in which the main steel section part falls within
the concrete slab depth and is used in span ranges of between 4000 and 9000 mm. contrary to
down-stand beams, the shallow floors have the slab sitting on the bottom flange’s upper surface
rather than on the top flange upper surface (Bicanic, 2010). One major consideration of this
composite structural member is the torsion applied to the beam. The slab can either be deep steel
decking or in-situ concrete usually of about 225 mm or be made of precast concrete. Shallow floors
have various benefits, among them being that because the structure slabs and beams are placed in a
similar location, there are no interruptions otherwise found in down-stand beams, and usually, this
does not require extra protection from fires.
Composite Columns and Frames
These can have high strength for cross sectional areas that are relatively small, implying that it is
possible to maximize the useable floor space. Different composite column types exist the most
common type being the hollow section s6teel tube filled with concrete. Another type is an open
steel section that is encased in concrete. The concrete in-fills add compression resistance to the steel
sections and this prevents buckling of the steel and because of its fire resisting properties, the
columns can be left without additional fire protection or just protected lightly (Wang, Pan and Peng,
2017) . Circular and rectangular hollow sections are used commonly, although the rectangular ones

have flat surfaces that are suitable for the end plate beat to column connections. Initially (early
periods), steel frame columns were encased in concrete to achieve fire protection and were designed
for applied loads if uncased. The effective column slenderness was reduced by encasing and this
resulted in increased buckling load (Wang et al., 2017). Filling the steel tube using concrete and this
means no formwork is needed for its construction. Framed structures can have composite beams,
steel members, composite columns, or all of them with several beam to column co9nnections
resulting in behaviors ranging from rigid to nominally pinned and these influence moments through
the entire frame. It is common practice in Australia to use pins as making joints stiff to achieve
rigidity is expensive. Using pins, sufficient stiffness is achieved that reduces beam deflections to an
appreciable level.
Timber-Concrete-Composite (TCC)
In recent decades, the use of TCC in the ACS has been on the upward surge largely due to the
related applications of TCC applications where timber alone cannot be used: TCC makes this
possible. The TCC integrates concrete and timber to create a composite that is superior to the sum
of its individual components and hence achieves higher performance parameters. TCC can be
traced to their use in Europe for refurbishing buildings where TCC floors were constructed. Their
use for new floors has been extensive to enhance existing timber floors performance. Using TCC in
flooring enables improvements that include bending stiffness, dynamic response, airborne sound
transmission, and load bearing capacity, structural fire ratings, and thermal mass and seismic
performance (Holschemacher and Kieslich, 2010). The TCC is connected using shear connections
that allow them to work as a single composite and the connector choice used is critical as it
determines the economic competitiveness and effectiveness of the composite system.
Some of the shear joints used include dowel fasteners, glued-in rods, plates notches, and a
combination of a variety of fastening systems. TCC used in flooring systems are optimized for
structural functions; the concrete is loaded in compression while the timber is loaded in tension
under bending. The addition of functional requirements such as fire protection and building physics,
some challenges may, however, emerge. TCC has also been applied in bridges and this has been a
traditional use of TCC, especially in the construction of bridge decks. The TCC in bridge decks
overcomes the problem of using just timber as the structural element of bridges, especially its
durability. TCC ensures the concrete layer protects the timber from contact with water, contributing
to the structural integrity and durability of the structure (Dias et al., 2015). TCC is a structurally
viable composite alternative that can compete with steel-concrete composites in construction
applications, especially for bridges and floors (Fragiacomo et al., 2018). Mass Timber Construction
(MTC) is being touted and has been proposed as an alternative construction method to be used in

Australia because of benefits that include savings in costs, a lower environmental impact, improved
amenities and lower running and maintenance costs (Kremer and Symmons, 2015).
Reinforced Fiber Composites (RFPs)
Technological innovations have seen the innovation and development of other composites in the
Australian Construction Sector, among the most recent composites to gain widespread use is the
fiber composite structures. The development of fiber composites within the ACS has been a result
of research and development in the past five years and it is used in areas such as bridges, replacing
large hard wood girder sections, railway sleepers, and in water front structures (Composites
Australia, 2019). However, fiber composites are rarely used in load bearing applications; Instead,
they are used for repairing existing structures such as in replacing steel in reinforced stressed
concrete. In very rare instances, fiber composites are used in new civil structures but it is very
useful in replacing deteriorated structures such as rusted steel or rotting wood. The deterioration of
structures is a common problem in Australia and it is estimated that it costs $ 500 million annually
to repair and/ or upgrade concrete structures.
While concrete and steel are still used for repairing structures due to the versatility of concrete to be
formed into many shapes and the property of steel or providing strength with minimal weight gains,
fiber has been used in recent times as well. The use of fiber is as a surface layer to improve the
responses of encapsulated elements or provide protection. During such applications, the materials
are bonded externally as fabrics, tows (fiber bundles), strips, plates, and jackets (Tornabene, 2017).
These composites have the benefit of bonding well with several substrate materials as well as their
ability to follow shapes that are complex. Fiber composites allow the strength of a structure to be
increased without increasing weight and stiffness. Reinforced Fiber Polymer (FRP) is used in
reinforced concrete and has been in use since the 60s. FRP are available either as unstressed FRP
such as ribbed FRP rods that resemble deformed steel reinforcing bars, carbon fiber and
undeformed E-glass bound using polyester, and prefabricated reinforcing cages. Stressed FRP is
also used widely and consists of rods, bundles, or strands of fiber reinforced polymers that run
parallel to the extension axis.
FRPs re durable and provide possible solution to the steel corrosion problem in steel reinforced
structures (Van Erp, Cattell and Heldt, 2005; Sezen, 2012)). FRP is also used as rebar and this has
the benefit of enhanced speeds of erection and handling and is also suitable to applications sensitive
to materials with the ability to interfere with the propagation of radio waves or that interfere with
electromagnetic fields. A limited number of civil engineering structures have been made principally
from FRP material in the past three decades. Applications include compound curved roofs, vehicle
and pedestrian bridges, roadside guard rails that absorb energy (of impact), bridge decks, modular

roof-top cooler towers, building systems, electricity transmission towers, access platforms for
chemical, industrial, and offshore applications, power poles and cross arms, and marine structures
like sea walls. Fiber composites have the benefits of high specific strength, specific stiffness, good
fatigue performance, tailorable durability, and potential for long term cost reductions (Van Erp,
Cattell and Heldt, 2005).
Reinforced Polymer Composites (RPCs)
This is also a recent composite material that has seen rapid development in the past decade and
there have been concerted efforts to incorporate them into the Australian Construction Industry
mainly as primary load bearing components. ROPCs have some advantages that include having
high specific strengths, tailorable durability, high specific stiffness, versatile fabrication, good
fatigue performance, and low costs of maintenance (Mosallam et al., 2015). Due to these benefits,
RPCs are being used in the construction sector in applications that include retrofitting, structure
rehabilitation, as alternative concrete reinforcement, and in limited cases as entire composites.
However, their uptake in the ACS is still low, largely due to high costs, lack of designers with
experience in polymer structure design, lack of design codes, and the poor understanding of issues
in construction by the composites industry (Górriz et al., 2017).

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