A Literature Review of Counter-Terrorism Policies in London, UK

This literature review delves into the multifaceted issue of counter-terrorism in the United Kingdom, particularly focusing on London. It analyzes existing studies on governmental and community-level counter-terrorism efforts, with a special emphasis on policies implemented by the Metropolitan Police Service and the London Fire Brigade. The review explores the concept of radicalism and reactionaries within the context of terrorism, examining how counter-terrorism policies may contribute to marginalization, extremism, and radicalization, especially within minority communities. It highlights the increasing threat of urban terrorism in London and the evolving strategies to counter these threats. The review identifies gaps in the current literature, particularly regarding the polarization between the government and communities due to counter-terrorism policies, and seeks to understand the experiences of targeted minority communities. The ultimate aim is to assess whether current policies inadvertently fuel further marginalization and radicalization, creating a deeper divide between the government and the community.

Running head: LITERATURE REVIEW
LITERATURE REVIEW
Name of the student
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1. Introduction
Terrorism has been and continues to be one of the major issues that have raised concern
for almost all the nations in the world. The issue of terrorism is raised in almost all the major
global meets that happen throughout the year around the globe. In the recent years, those
countries that were until now untouched by terrorism are being targeted as well. The attacks in
France, Denmark and other European nations demonstrate that there has been a steady rise in
terrorism with new populations being targeted. One of the chief reasons for this is the emergence
and spread of globalization, state Quan Li, and Drew Schaub1. The impact of globalization on the
world has been such that there is hardly any area or aspect of life that has not been touched by it.
However, it has been seen that terrorism has penetrated into those realms of the society that were
not thought to be vulnerable to it2.
The threat of terrorism in the contemporary world has changed and it has influenced the
perspective of the government and the public alike. In the previous years, the nations feared
threat from existential terrorism but now the threat is inward and both the government and the
public are aware of this threat. The events of September 11 in the United States, July 7 in the
United Kingdom, London to be precise and the March 11 in Spain have reinforced the inward
threat of terrorism. Added to that, are the influence of globalization, the media, and the hyper-
connected social areas that continue to increase the threat. The UK government has taken several
steps to increase the public security and safety. However, it has been criticized for being biased
against one particular group and labeling it as the ‘suspect other’.
1 Li, Quan, and Drew Schaub. "Economic globalization and transnational terrorism: A pooled time-series analysis."
Journal of Conflict Resolution 48, no. 2 (2004): 230-258.
2 Spalek, Basia, and Douglas Weeks. "The Role of Communities in Counterterrorism: Analyzing Policy and
Exploring Psychotherapeutic Approaches within Community Settings." Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 40, no. 12
(2017): 991-1003.

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The literature review aims to analyze the studies that have been carried out on the
counterterrorism environment in the UK, especially London at both government and community
level. In addition, the review will also discuss the policies of counterterrorism that the
Metropolitan Police Service and the London Fire Brigade deliver, and the way the individuals
are groups react to it. The literature review however mainly aims to identify the gap in the
literature regarding the counterterrorism policies and the government-community polarization
concerning the policies. The review will also focus on understanding the experiences of the
minority community that has been targeted majorly by the government and that has caused the
government and the community to stand at opposite poles.
The aim of the literature review is thus also to understand whether the current policies of
counterterrorism further lead to marginalization, extremism and radicalism. To state specifically,
the aim of the literature is to understand the radicals and the reactionaries in the community-
government interface. According to Charles R Hale, while radicals refer to those liberals who are
at the extreme end of liberalism, reactionaries are those conservatives who too are ultra-
conservative3. In this paper, the radicals are the terrorist groups; the reactionaries are the
government, and organizations that believe in the establishment of a society or a state that was
previously there.
2. Concept of Radicalism
The concept of radicalism and the reactionaries has a long and debatable history in the
process of the social and the politics of the social context. One of the most debatable times in the
history of London began around the year 1520 when the legitimacy of the Roman Catholic
3 Hale, Charles R. "Does multiculturalism menace? Governance, cultural rights and the politics of identity in
Guatemala." Journal of Latin American Studies 34, no. 3 (2002): 485-524.

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Church was challenged. The 18th century witnessed some more movements of radicalism that
swept London. The movement also included the newly developed French revolution and the
constitution of America that initiated the rally against the ruling aristocracy for the reform of
aimed at fundamental changes in constitution and the redistribution of the seats of the
parliament. During the 19th century, there has been the rise of the enlightened and the collective
voice of the middle class community people that was established forever. According to the
concept of the radicalism and the reactionaries rose to address the approaches related to the
lesbian and gay rights, civil and women rights, issues of the environment and the theology4. In
the broader sense, it targets to the understanding of the concept of violence, Islam and terrorism.
The concept of terrorism and radicalism frequently are intermingled in the jargon of the current
day and are more often assumed to be linked with some of the degree of the violent outcomes.
Unlike the concept of the radicalism in the 19th and the 18th century that were narrowly associated
with the advocating parliamentary reforms, the 20th century witnessed the considerable diversion
of radicalism. In the context of Britain, radicalism has been long identified as one of the four
drivers of the strategies for the context of the terrorism and is generally defined as the procedure
by which people generally support the violent extremism or join the group of the terrorists. The
assignment highlights the rising scenarios of the homegrown terrorism and countering of the
threat of radicalization and the increasing polarization among the societies that have upstaged the
struggle of the global military against the major terrorist organizations5. With the increase of the
threat of the terrorism and the dissemination regarding the major terrorist organization that are
4Sukarieh, Mayssoun, and Stuart Tannock. "The deradicalisation of education: terror, youth and the assault on
learning." Race & Class 57, no. 4 (2016): 22-38.
5McCauley, Clark, and Sophia Moskalenko. "Understanding political radicalization: The two-pyramids
model." American Psychologist 72, no. 3 (2017): 205.

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transitional in nature , the government of London have intended towards the development of own
radicalization schedules for keeping worth the cultural and the socio-political particularities.
3. Counter-terrorism atmosphere in London
Urban psychological oppressor assaults or the terrorism threats have turned out to be
progressively increasing in the last few years in Britain. As per the review that was conducted by
the London preparedness during the year 2016, responded to some of the major incidents and
events of terrorism highlighting the improvement of the emergency services of London regarding
their capability towards responding to the threats and the suspected community regarding any
sort of anti progressive and violating actions. According to the research, the safety of the citizens
can never be thoroughly guaranteed and thus the preparation is essential for adjusting to the
tactics and the planning’s in response to the incidents of the terrorist that have frightened the
whole nation and the environment from the last few years6. The series of incidents related to the
terrorism in the year 2017 has led to multiple levels of fatalities. The threat of the terrorism is
often subjected as severe or highly likely in the United Kingdom by the researchers and the
survey analysis. As per the record of the national bureau, United Kingdom has been suffering
with a lot number of major attacks of terrorism with multiple fatalities in the year 2017. March
22 witnessed the killing of two people with the stabbing of the police officer, two months later to
May 22, the instance of the suicide bumbler blowing himself before the Manchester Arena
shocked the whole nation killing and injuring many lives. Further reports said that on June 3,
6Argomaniz, Javier, and Orla Lynch. "Introduction to the Special Issue: The Complexity of Terrorism—Victims,
Perpetrators and Radicalization." (2018): 491-506.

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more than 8 people were killed and 48 were injured due to the sudden attack of the terrorists that
furthermore shot the perpetrators to death7.
In the context of the counter terrorism attack, some of the attacks include Islamophobic
attack that is close to Finsbury Park Mosque on the date of 19 June. The attacks that have been
most recent have occurred in the series of the incidents related to the terrorists across the western
part of Europe which included the attack of the terrorist on the Bataclan concert hall, Brussels
bombings, driven by heavy lorries and crashing of hijacked trucks challenging the lives of many
of the nation8. The counter terrorism strategy in the case of the London emerged the importance
shortly after the election of 2016, where the mayor illustrated the importance to prepare for the
incident of major terrorism attack are threatening the lives of the community people. According
to the research, the mayor furthermore expressed his suspicion regarding the certain categories of
the community who may be harmful and connected to the antisocial activities9. The British
strategy of counter terrorism included the review report that consisted of 127 recommendations
among which few were finalized. According to the news, four strands of the counter terrorism
atmosphere in London included pursue, prevent, protect and prepare. These strategies inevitably
focus on the review of the effective marauding terrorist attacks that has been threatening the
nation. The research studies furthermore illustrated how the responses to the attacks and the
threats of the terrorist had been rapid, though it is still an important and salutary lesson that
7Liang, Christina Schori. "Europe for the Europeans: The foreign and security policy of the populist radical right."
In Europe for the Europeans, pp. 19-50. Routledge, 2016.
8Syal, Rajeev, and Peter Walker. 2019. "Theresa May Responds To London Bridge Attack With Anti-Terror Laws
Promise". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/jun/04/london-bridge-attack-pushes-theresa-
may-into-promising-new-laws.
9Yom, Sean, and Katrina Sammour. "Counterterrorism and youth radicalization in Jordan: Social and political
dimensions." CTC Sentinel 10, no. 4 (2017): 25-30.

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would enable in the facilitation of the prevention against the terrorist attacks10. As per the
research analysis and the survey reports, the incidents and the attacks in the heart of the London
involved multiple assailants with knives and sharp objected rather than the bombs and the guns.
It has been estimated that had the incidents and the attacks in the the place included the use of
the automatic weapons like the explosive devices, the toll of the death in the crowded place had
been higher than the normal. It is thus essential to understand the challenge and the results
caused by the threat of the terrorist attacks by the government of the country towards addressing
the question whether the level of the risk is acceptable in nature.
4. Policies of counter-terrorism delivered by Metropolitan Police Service and London Fire
Brigade
The metropolitan division of the counter terrorism of the police in London intends to
fulfill some of the wide range of the roles that safeguards the population and the capital of the
country. In case of the scenario where the city had been deployed by itself, the equipment of the
units operated on an effective mode.11 However, as per the research, in case of the scenarios
where the teams have been deployed in the areas that are outside the premise of the London, the
related operation had been more challenging. This has been due to the certain restrictions of the
existing technological moves and the connectivity that poses a threat from the special and the
suspected group of the community of the region.
10Spalek, Basia, and Douglas Weeks. "The Role of Communities in Counterterrorism: Analyzing Policy and
Exploring Psychotherapeutic Approaches within Community Settings." Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 40, no. 12
(2017): 991-1003.
11Boyce, Geoffrey A., Sarah Launius, and Adam O. Aguirre. "Drawing the Line: Spatial Strategies of Community
and Resistance in Post-SB1070 Arizona." ACME: An International Journal for Critical Geographies 18, no. 1
(2019).

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The challenges of the metropolitan police force in London needed a division of the
solution that tends to create a seamless technological advancement or the mobile device that can
be used on the move. As per the research, the division of the police force required solution
creating move smooth operation of the technology12. Some of the recommended and the
strategically implemented solution and policies by the police force of the London metropolitan
and the fire brigades are the recommended use of the surveillance equipments and the vislink
cameras. Furthermore, policies included broadcasting the live images in real time, from the air
towards the remote side like the field. In addition, the tent or the school building that enhances
the chances of enabling the team towards the provision of a complete and a clear picture of the
events and the scenarios from the air, in the case of the immediate decision-makings on the
ground. As per the research, the policies regarding the implementation and the facilitation of the
technology regarding the equal effectiveness in the remote areas, which are the general target for
the terrorist to reside and plan needs to be implemented13. Furthermore, policies regarding the
safe checking of the identity proof and religious determination needs to be enabled with in case
of the immigrants and the residing citizens of the London to ensure that no suspected individual
is found connected to the anti- social and the terrorism activities. Despite the fact that no
individual should be charged and held guilty just for his or her religion, as per the Universal
Declaration of the Human Rights, the government of the nation should keep an eye on the
suspected community. In his research, Thomas highlighted the effective use of the mobile
technology by the metropolitan police force and for brigade force of London for unveiling the
12Nacos, Brigitte L. Terrorism and counterterrorism. Routledge, 2016.
13Ragazzi, Francesco. "Countering terrorism and radicalisation: Securitising social policy?." Critical Social
Policy 37, no. 2 (2017): 163-179.

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unreliable remote locations to track the people in danger14. Policies regarding the improvement
of the broadcasting of the satellites towards the head office for the police force of the
metropolises of London are some of the factor that needs to be highlighted for further intelligent
work.
Some of the focused priorities and the policies of the police force and the fire brigade
people are keeping the children and the young people in safe zone. According to the international
campaign regarding the safeguarding of the child raised some of the challenges to the police
officers and the staff towards thinking about the signs that may intend to harm the child in the
scenario of explosion, crimes and the terrorist attacks in the midst of the city15. The policies of
counter-terrorism delivered by Metropolitan Police Service and London Fire Brigade
furthermore included the ensuring of the safeguarding and the tackling of the violence against the
girls and the women who are often the victim in case of rapid attacks and the threats of the
terrorism. According to the research, mostly, youngsters from the nation belonging from various
categories of families tends to get engaged in the terrorist activities in the name of peace and the
right of the religion of the state or in the name of jihad16. Thus, it is the responsibility of the
police force to enable protection to these youngsters who are being involved in these crimes and
forwarding in the pathway of destruction. As per the report, there had been a dramatic rise in the
rate of the Islamophobic offense following the attacks in the Manchester and London and the
14Thomas, Paul. "Youth, terrorism and education: Britain’s Prevent programme." International Journal of Lifelong
Education 35, no. 2 (2016): 171-187.
15Berman, Russell A., and Arno Tausch. "Support for Terrorism in Muslim Majority Countries and Implications for
Immigration Policies in the West." Strategic Assessment 20, no. 1 (2017): 7-21.
16Archick, Kristin, and Paul Belkin. "European Security and Islamist Terrorism." Congressional Research
Service (2016).

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policies of the police force included the tackling of the hate crimes17. Robert in his research study
illustrated the context that since the attack of the terrorist in the Westminster in the date of the
March 2017, the region has witnessed a major number of the hate crimes and he indicators of the
tension18. The research study furthermore illustrated how the aftermath of such of the events
tends to develop a pike in the rate of the hate crimes, which are specifically the Islamophobic
ones.
As reported by the data of the Home office and the London’s Metropolitan Police
Service’s Counterterrorism Command (SO15), the policies by the state government and the
metropolitan police force and the fire brigade of the London enshrined the ai towards the safety
and making the London a better and a safer place19. The policy D10 safety, security and
resilience to emergency target the safeguarding of the local people from the threats and the
attacks of the terrorism without the imposition of any sort of marginalization. The policies of the
counter terrorism environment explores the realities regarding the lived experiences connecting
to the context of the radicalism and extremism in the heart of London.
5. Reactions to the policies by individuals and groups
Though there has been certain number of the policies regarding the threats and the attacks
of the terrorist in the heart of London, the lack of effective implementation of the counter
terrorism policies and the strategies has resulted in much issues and challenges among the people
in the nation. The below figure illustrates the various number of survey reports that highlights
how the implementation and the evaluation of the policies are very much limited a compared to
17Freilich, Joshua D., and Gary LaFree. "Criminology theory and terrorism: Introduction to the special issue."
(2015): 1-8.
18Burke, Robert A. Counter-terrorism for emergency responders. CRC Press, 2017.
19Silke, Andrew, ed. Routledge Handbook of Terrorism and Counterterrorism. Routledge, 2018.

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the policies that have been developed or introduced by the metropolitan police force and the fire
brigade.
Figure: Development/ monitoring, implementation and the evaluation of the policies
Source: (Argomaniz, Oldrichand Christian Kaunert)
The figure above is the accumulated report by the majority of the people residing in the
heart of London regarding the effectiveness of the policies that have been developed. According
to the research study, there has been far too much tolerance regarding the context of the
extremism regarding the proposed counter terrorism strategy and the policy20. Despite of the
international agreements and the legislative policy for the aim of the protection of the people of
the community of the nation, there has been rampant terrorist attacks followed by high level of
death and injury targeting the inefficiency of the policies aiming the protection of the public on
the cheap. As per the reports by Angela, some of the factors contributing to ineffective
20Argomaniz, Javier, OldrichBures, and Christian Kaunert. "A decade of EU counter-terrorism and intelligence: A
critical assessment." (2015): 191-206.

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measurements include the low number of the arrests by the police, the number of the convictions
regarding the issues of the judge in the scenario of the counter terrorist. The lack of the material
effectiveness of the policies towards the safety and the well-being of the people of the nation is
also included21. As per the insight of the researcher, it is one of the intrinsic parts of the mandate
and the measure for the adoption, which needs to be in the line with the rights of the human
which are fundamental in nature and are connected to the charter of the fundamental rights22.
The funding towards the extremist ideology and the facts of the conservatives intimate alliance
with that of the Saudi Arabia regarding the funding of the Islamist organization in the London
are some of the factors that has contributed to the inefficiency of the policies of the nation.
Aziz Z Huq, Tom R Tyler and Stephen J Schulhofer conducted study on the mechanisms
for extracting cooperation for the counterterrorism policies with evidence from the UK. The
authors found that the policies of counterterrorism employed by the UK government could work
better if the police and security officials employed fair “procedural justice or policing tactics”23.
Imran Awan however found that the Muslim population in the UK has come under threat
because of the counterterrorism strategies implemented by the UK government. The author
specifically mentions the Prevent Strategy 2011 plan of the UK government and its adverse
affects on the British Muslim population24. The study reveals that the strategy has risked further
alienation of the Muslim community rather than include them as participants in the strategy. Jytte
21Quartermaine, Angela. "Discussing terrorism: a pupil-inspired guide to UK counter-terrorism policy
implementation in religious education classrooms in England." British journal of religious education 38, no. 1
(2016): 13-29.
22Thomas, Paul. "Changing experiences of responsibilisation and contestation within counter-terrorism policies: the
British Prevent experience." Policy & Politics 45, no. 3 (2017): 305-321.
23 Huq, Aziz Z., Tom R. Tyler, and Stephen J. Schulhofer. "Mechanisms for eliciting cooperation in counterterrorism
policing: Evidence from the United Kingdom." Journal of Empirical Legal Studies 8, no. 4 (2011): 728-761.
24 Awan, Imran. "“I am a Muslim not an extremist”: How the Prevent Strategy has constructed a “suspect”
community." Politics & Policy 40, no. 6 (2012): 1158-1185.