The Changing Landscape of UN Peacekeeping: Challenges and Reforms

This essay provides a comprehensive analysis of United Nations peacekeeping operations, tracing their evolution and development from post-World War II to the present. It defines peacekeeping operations as strategies aimed at mitigating conflicts and protecting civilians, highlighting the role of the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations. The essay examines the effectiveness of peacekeeping missions, considering factors such as the limitation of armed conflicts, protection of civilians, and the impact on host nations. It delves into the history of peacekeeping, including the shift from monitoring ceasefires to humanitarian interventions and peace enforcement. The essay also discusses the principles and guidelines, including consent, impartiality, and the limited use of force, as well as different types of peacekeeping operations, such as preventive deployment and implementing settlements. Furthermore, it explores legal considerations, the role of regional institutes, and the challenges faced by the UN, such as recruiting personnel and adapting to changing conflict dynamics. Finally, the essay suggests potential reforms to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of peacekeeping operations.

Peacekeeping today does not
mean what it did fifty years
ago

TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................1
Evolution and development ............................................................................................................2
United nation's peacekeeping operation .....................................................................................2
Analysing effectiveness of peacekeeping ...................................................................................3
History and evolution ..................................................................................................................4
Implementation of peacekeeping operations...................................................................................5
Principles and guidelines ............................................................................................................5
Types of peacekeeping operations ..............................................................................................6
Planning and implementation......................................................................................................7
Analysing the role of consent in peacekeeping ...........................................................................8
Significance and consequences of peacekeeping operations ......................................................9
Legal considerations in peacekeeping ......................................................................................10
Regional institutes and UN peacekeeping ................................................................................11
Evaluation of conceptual frameworks for UN peacekeeping operation ...................................12
Suggested improvements ..............................................................................................................14
Analysing transition from peacekeeping to peace enforcement ...............................................14
Challenges and loopholes .........................................................................................................15
Suggested reforms .....................................................................................................................15
CONCLUSION..............................................................................................................................17
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................19

INTRODUCTION
Peacekeeping operations are defined as the dynamic operations or the strategies which
aim to help the nations which undergo tremendous loss of life and property, as a result of
conflicts and wars. The Department of peacekeeping operations of United Nations is responsible
for achieving peacekeeping goals on global front and is intended to establish the conditions
which favour the peaceful living1. For managing the conflicts international communities favour
peacekeeping operations as an effective way to safeguard and protect the peace and security in
the region.
Over the 70 year journey of United nations the peacemaking efforts have taken several
transformations. With the global dependencies of nations over each other for development and
security the peacekeeping principles of UN are considered as effective guidelines to sustain the
peaceful living throughout the world. Peacekeeping operations are usually deployed in the
regions which are experiencing or are highly vulnerable to violence or conflicting environment.
These missions of UN aims at reducing severity of violence, protecting the safety rights of
civilians and to help in recurrence in after war situations2. This aspect of UN operations has
undergone into vast range of changes.
The peacekeeping authorities monitors and establish peace in the conflicting regions of
world through peace agreements3. The United nations security council take necessary actions to
maintain and establish security and peace within international communities. The conflicts within
the nations can lead to huge number of deaths and damage to the local communities. Thus being
a responsible global agency the peacekeeping operations of UN help nations to seek a proper
solution for dealing with such conflicting situations. During war situations the human rights are
violated to significant extent and it becomes vital to protect the civilians through international
interventions.
1 Abilova, O. and Novosseloff, A., 2016. Demystifying intelligence in UN peace
operations: Toward an organizational doctrine.
2 Nadin, P. ed., 2018. The Use of Force in UN Peacekeeping. Routledge.
3 Bellamy, A.J. and Hunt, C.T., 2015. Twenty-first century UN peace operations:
protection, force and the changing security environment. International Affairs, 91(6),
pp.1277-1298.
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United nations has the authority to directly interrupt in the national or local conflicts. It
can help its member nations to shift from conflict and critical situations to peaceful state4. The
peacekeeping operations are vital for creating democratic, prosperous and safe living
environment for all the international communities. The demand for peacekeeping operations has
been rising significantly so that armed conflicts can be reduced. These operations have
encouraged drastic and valuable transformations in regions such as Somalia, Syria and Bosnia.
Though every peacekeeping operation has not brought equal success but it has highlighted the
need that world needs clear policy and strategic framework which aims at restoring peace.
The essay aims at evaluating the peacekeeping operations of UN and the significance of
these operations for the security of safety rights of civilians. It will also discuss the history and
increasing role of these operations for integrating peace with globalisation5. The essay will also
analyse the principles and implementation of peacekeeping. It will also evaluate the legal
considerations and consent provided by the regional authorities to help UN in achieving its peace
objectives. The study will also demonstrate the various challenges faced by the UN in
accomplishing its peacekeeping operations. Further the document will also suggest reformations
which can improve the efficiency of the peacekeeping operations.
Evolution and development
United nation's peacekeeping operation
The peacekeeping operations are developed and used by the UN to resolve the armed
conflicts. With the end of cold war there has been repeated incidences of conflicts between world
powers. With the increasing interconnections and interdependencies the conflicts are quite
common among the nations6. The long term imposition of armed forces and their consequences
on humanitarian aspects urges the need of strong peacekeeping practices. The negative side of
the globalisation has also changed the nature and practices of peacekeeping operations.
4 Berdal, M. and Ucko, D.H., 2015. The use of force in UN peacekeeping operations:
Problems and prospects. The RUSI Journal, 160(1), pp.6-12.
5 Aoi, C., De Coning, C. and Karlsrud, J., 2017. Introduction: Addressing the emerging
gap between concepts, doctrine, and practice in UN peacekeeping operations. In UN
Peacekeeping Doctrine in a New Era (pp. 21-50). Routledge. pp.352-376.
6 Coleman, K.P., 2017. Extending UN Peacekeeping Financing Beyond UN Peacekeeping
Operations? The Prospects and Challenges of Reform. Global Governance, 23(1).
2

The cross border violence, accumulation of the illicit arms and highly explosive materials
are easily available and can be used by any region or economy to completely destroy the other
region. It is the responsibility of peacekeepers to associate with the local stakeholders so that
peace can be regained. Peacekeeping forces are believed to sustain their non-military nature so
that violence and life threatening war situations can be avoided7. However, the peacekeeping
operations can take the form of armed forces in situations when quick actions are required to
establish the peaceful environment.
The successful peacekeeping operations cannot be executed without support of local
organisations. The major emphasis of peacekeeping operations is on civilian dimensions. The
civilians are indirect or the deliberate target of armed conflicts and thus these peacekeeping
forces consider it is their primary role to protect them. There are states which have failed to
assure the security and healthy living for the citizens and thus it encourages the need of global
system of peacekeeping8.
Analysing effectiveness of peacekeeping
The peacekeepers are established in the regions facing lingering or ongoing violence. The
key priorities for such peacekeeping missions is to deal with the violence. The major criteria for
evaluating the success of peacekeeping lies in the ability to limit the armed conflicts as well as in
preventing the renewal of such situations in the future9.
The effectiveness of the peacekeeping operations was evaluated largely by evaluation of
the outcomes of conflicts and violence. In terms of reducing the severity of conflict outcomes
and extent of violence these practices have been proved greatly effective. However, there are
several aspects which influence the peacemaking strategies. Along with the violence
peacekeeping operations are also focused to address the issues such as refugee flow, economic
reconstruction and implications of peacekeeping for host nations.
7 Foley, C., 2017. UN peacekeeping operations and the protection of civilians: saving
succeeding generations. Cambridge University Press.
8 Uesugi, Y., 2004. The nexus between UN peacekeeping and human security: Reviewing
the functions of UN peacekeeping from a perspective of human security. Conflict and
Human Security: A Search for New Approaches of Peace-building, (19), pp.96-123.
9 Fung, C.J., 2015. What explains China's deployment to UN peacekeeping
operations?. International Relations of the Asia-Pacific, 16(3), pp.409-441.
3

According to10 There have been several incidences in which despite the presence of UN
peacekeepers the civilians were not safeguarded. Bosnia and Rwanda are the well known
examples in which the presence of peacekeepers does not bring any significant difference in the
situation. The key principle of peacekeeping operations is that it allows force implications only
for the self defence. It acts as one of the key factor which affects the effectiveness of
peacekeeping operation.
History and evolution
Initially the peacekeeping missions of UN were accomplished for maintaining the cease
fire agreements. Post world war 2 these operations were limited to resolve the shared concerns of
global powers. At the time of cold war very few peacekeeping missions were executed. Their
scope was to emphasis and monitor the peace agreements. For several years only international
conflicts were prioritised by these peacekeeping agencies. However, during the period 1989 to
1994 peacekeeper missions were increased11.
For the next few years UN began to send its troops in the conflicting regions as an act of
humanitarian intervention so that peace can be established. The 1992 peace agenda gave strong
support to peacekeeping operations. In the year 1992 department of peacekeeping operations was
established so that peacekeeping activities can be performed with more effectiveness. From the
implications of failure in maintaining peace in Somalia, Bosnia and Rwanda continuous efforts
have been made by UN to reform the peacekeeping bureaucracy12. The evolution and growth of
peacekeeping operations are accomplished by several challenges such as recruiting personnel
and military forces.
At the time of cold war UN peacekeeping operations were mainly concerned for
separation of antagonistic forces and to monitor the cease fires so that hostility resumption can
be discouraged. However, with the end of war peace enforcement and peacekeeping capabilities
10 Hultman, L., Kathman, J.D. and Shannon, M., 2016. United Nations peacekeeping
dynamics and the duration of post-civil conflict peace. Conflict Management and Peace
Science, 33(3), pp.231-249.
11 de Coning, C., 2017. Peace enforcement in Africa: doctrinal distinctions between the
African Union and United Nations. Contemporary Security Policy, 38(1), pp.145-160.
12 Karlsrud, J., 2015. Norm Change in International Relations: Linked Ecologies in UN
Peacekeeping Operations. Routledge.
4

of UN were expanded. The peacekeeping operations have been influenced by two development
aspects. The first one is that the nature of armed conflicts has experienced drastic and significant
changes. These conflicts have shifted from interest based conflicts to intrastate conflicts. Thus, it
has put civilians on front line of armed violence. The second one is the globalisation and the
advancements and increment in uncivil society which includes flow of arms and illicit
commodities and refugees. In order to address these issues UN peacekeeping methods have
undergone the present form of development and framework13.
Implementation of peacekeeping operations
Principles and guidelines
The peacekeeping operations of UN are based upon three principles which are as follows:
Consent: It is essential that the conflicting parties must agreed to UN terms and operational
methods of peacekeeping forces. The lack of coordination and cooperation between regional
authorities and the UN forces can lead to the unsatisfactory outcomes in the peace management.
Since the UN try to resolve the conflicts and war situation by establishing a legal agreement
which need to be followed by the all conflicting parties. However, if there are no possibilities or
an attempt from the parties to settle the conflict through agreements or peaceful discussion then
it may be impossible for the peacekeeping forces achieving their goals14. Without proper support
and consent peacekeeping forces may not find any appropriate solution for resolving the
conflicts between the nations.
Impartiality: It is essential that peaceful resolution of conflicts is accomplished in a way such
that its co-occurrence possibilities in future is minimum15. However, this is possible only when
the agreements used to make settlement are unbiased. Thus, the second major principle used by
peacekeeping forces is impartiality. The peacekeeping forces ensure that the agreement made are
in favour of civilians and must resolve the conflicting situations at the earliest. However, these
solutions must not be developed at the cost of following unbiased or unethical practices to favour
anyone party.
13 Koops, J.A., MacQueen, N., Tardy, T. and Williams, P.D. eds., 2015. The Oxford
handbook of United Nations peacekeeping operations. Oxford Handbooks.
14 Harrington, C., 2016. 33. Peacekeeping. Handbook on Gender in World Politics, p.280.
15 Principles of peacekeeping. 2019. [Online]. Accessed through
<https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/principles-of-peacekeeping>
5

Limited use of force: The primary objective of these forces is to maintain the peace with
minimum use of violence or forceful destruction. Thus, the third principle of peacekeeping
operations of UN is the minimum use of force or armed behaviour. The key goal of these
operations is to determine a mutual way or agreement for resolving conflicts instead of forcefully
imposing military to control the conflicts16. However, there has been increase in flexibility of
these principles. When the conflict becomes uncontrollable then in some instances it becomes
necessary for the peacekeeping forces enhancing the use of forces and military.
Types of peacekeeping operations
The key operations performed by the peacekeepers are as follows:
Preventive deployment: The peacekeeping troops of UN operates in the region when it is
requested by the governing parties due to expected possibilities of conflict or war. Thus, it can be
consider as a preventive measure by the UN to avoid the situation of conflict17. This operation
can be consider as the early warning and thus regions which are expected to involve in conflict
are managed prior to conflict occurrence.
Traditional peacekeeping: With this type of operation UN tends to develop conditions or
agreement which can encourage political negotiation so that war or conflicts can be avoided. The
peacekeepers also monitor the ceasefires and buffer zones in the conflict regions. The
peacemakers can be armed or unarmed depending upon the territory situations. For instance in
Cyprus and Syria armed peacekeeping forces are deployed while in western Sahara unarmed
military observers are present18.
16 Duursma, A. and Gledhill, J., 2019. Voted out: Regime type, elections and contributions
to United Nations peacekeeping operations. European Journal of International
Relations, p.1354066119830773.
17 Reychler., L. 2010. Peacemaking, Peacekeeping, and Peacebuilding. [Online]. Accessed
through
<http://oxfordre.com/internationalstudies/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.001.00
01/acrefore-9780190846626-e-274>
18 Coleman, K.P., 2017. Extending UN Peacekeeping Financing Beyond UN Peacekeeping
Operations? The Prospects and Challenges of Reform. Global Governance, 23(1).
6

Implementing settlements: This type of peacekeeping operations provide support to the
comprehensive settlements which has been agreed by conflicting parties19. The peacekeeping
forces can monitor the ceasefires and are involved in weapon destruction, supervision and
providing training to the regional police forces for dealing with post conflict situations.
Assuring the regular supply of humanitarian reliefs during war: During continuous war
situations it is essential that the necessary supplies which provides relief to civilians are assured.
The can be consider as effective measure by UN so that the complexity and severity of critical
war situations can be reduced20. However, for this functionality it is required that political
authorities must provide support to UN so that the agreements can be deployed.
Deployment of UN forces and ceasefire enforcement: These functions cannot be strictly
consider as the peacekeeping operations instead they are enforcement. When conflict
consequences are beyond control limit by the nations then UN force can be imposed so that this
external agency can help to state institutions which are collapsed. In extreme critically situations
to prevent the safety of civilians UN peacekeeping forces can also enforce the ceasefire.
Planning and implementation
Peacekeeping operations of UN undergoes into three phases of deployment. In the first
phase mission is started and implementation is mandated. After the implementation process,
peacekeeping forces are also required to complete the transition. In transition phases UN
peacekeeping forces performs the actions such as hand over, liquidation or withdrawal from the
operation. Few months after the peace accord are very critical for peacekeepers so that they can
establish the peace. The mission leaders and peacekeeping teams identify the mission
headquarters and arrives at the destinations. These teams quickly formulate the control systems
so that peace can be achieved21.
19 Howard, L.M. and Dayal, A.K., 2018. The use of force in UN
peacekeeping. International Organization, 72(1), pp.71-103.
20 Karlsrud, J., 2018. Are UN Peacekeeping Missions Moving Toward" Chapter Seven and
a Half Operations"?.
21 Chu, B., 2016. The Forgotten Chapter: The Legality of Peacekeeping, Peace
Enforcement, and Military Intervention under Chapter VIII of the UN Charter. Gonz. J.
Int'l L., 20, p.1.
7

Along with the establishment of start up points UN also develops functional components
so that field functions can be performed. The peacekeepers establish coordination between
civilians, military and police so that the local situation can be understood and effective conflict
management methods can be applied to the mission. Peacekeeping professionals consist of
members from different professions and background so that they can provide better solution to
the conflicts22. For the successful implementation and transition of peacekeeping mission logistic
operational centres, mission analysis centres and integrated support services are also provided by
the UN forces so that they can analyse the realistic situation of site and decision can be made as
per the priorities of peace making attempt.
Analysing the role of consent in peacekeeping
The consent by host countries is one of the important element which measures the
success of UN peacekeeping operations. On many occasions host countries demand for
premature withdrawal or obstruct operations in a way that their mandate becomes impossible for
UN forces. As per23 consent can be known as one of the element which distinguishes the
peacekeeping operations from enforcement. The consent for peacekeeping operations is adjunct
to peace contract which permit the UN to implement peacekeeping principles. In context of
international peace the consent can be of three forms namely unreliable, open handed and
external.
It has been analysed by24 that the unreliable consent is in conflicts in which though peace
and ceasefire agreements are signed but it can be assured or guaranteed that the document will be
respected or followed. On the other hand with open handed consent the nations involved in
22 Crowe, J. and John, A., 2017. The status of private military security companies in united
nations peacekeeping operations under the international law of armed conflict. Melb. J.
Int'l L., 18, p.16.
23 Peter, M., Bøås, M., Schia, N.N., Strazzari, F., Karlsrud, J., Muller, L.P., De Coning, C.,
Lie, J.H.S., de Carvalho, B., Stamnes, E. and Gjelsvik, I.M., 2015. United Nations Peace
Operations: Aligning Principles and Practice.
24 Tull, D.M., 2018. The Limits and Unintended Consequences of UN Peace Enforcement:
The Force Intervention Brigade in the DR Congo. International Peacekeeping, 25(2),
pp.167-190.
8

conflicts themselves request UN to support and monitor the peace agreement. It has evaluated
that consents are not only mandatory for the initiation of peacekeeping operations but also for
supporting and initiating the political processing. One of the critical principle of peacekeeping
operations is the strategic and tactical consent.
25analyses that the robust peacekeeping operations consist of use of military forces at
tactic level. These forces are provided consent from the host authorities. On the other hand
enforcements consist of utilisation of strategic consent. The key goal of peacekeeping processes
is to establish the sustainable peace. This goal is characterised by the security, political process
and agreements, laws, human rights, governance, extension of state power and development of
social and economic level. During the limited period of deployment of peace operations
peacekeepers are expected to establish the above mentioned characteristics of goal. For the
minimal goals it can be easy for UN to achieve consent as it will require the equal participation
of interlocutors26. However, it is also possible that consent to some interventions may reassure all
stakeholders related to conflicts.
Significance and consequences of peacekeeping operations
The growing demand of peacekeeping operations encourages the need of strong
partnership and collaboration between UN and regional organisations27. Though regional
peacekeepers and organisations are increasing but the role of UN peacekeepers and resources
assistance remains unchallengeable. Global peacekeeping missions are directed and planned by
UN and emphasis on sharing the peacekeeping responsibility with the region peacekeeping
institutes. UN peacekeeping strategies provides an integrated and unbiased solution for resolving
conflicts so that peace can be maintained in the world.
25 Stojek, S.M. and Tir, J., 2015. The supply side of United Nations peacekeeping
operations: Trade ties and United Nations-led deployments to civil war states. European
Journal of International Relations, 21(2), pp.352-376.
26 Langholtz, H.J., 2010. Principles and guidelines for UN peacekeeping
operations. Williamsburg: Peace Operations Training Institute.
27 Karlsrud, J., 2015. The UN at war: examining the consequences of peace-enforcement
mandates for the UN peacekeeping operations in the CAR, the DRC and Mali. Third
World Quarterly, 36(1), pp.40-54.
9

Along with the assistance to regional missions of peacekeeping UN also helps in capacity
building by assuring the sufficient supply of necessary resources. Thus even though both of these
peacekeeping institutes work together the greater responsibility lies on side of UN28. Being a
global peacekeeper UN also distinguishes between peace-building activities and prioritise
peacekeeping tasks29. UN peacekeepers provide their support to security reforms and early
provisions of conflict management. These operational activities also aims to build the law of rule
post conflicts.
The consequences of UN peacekeeping operations can have positive, negative as well as
neutral effects. For example the UN peacekeeping interventions can help countries to overcome
the conflicting and war situations so that instead of terror and war nations can peacefully focus
on their economic and social development. However, failure to effectively implement
peacekeeping principles can also lead to neutral or negative consequences30. Like the misconduct
and abusive behaviour of peacekeepers can lead to new forms of social issues which can further
make situation more complicated. The military and peace enforcement can also give rise to more
tension between the nations involved in the conflict. In many peace missions such as in Kashmir
and Afghanistan it has been observed that the peacekeeping forces are playing a neutral role in
keeping peace between the regions.
Legal considerations in peacekeeping
The power to enforce the military forces by UN has always been dependent upon the
consent and agreement by its member nations of security council. At some extent his limits the
security role and capabilities of UN. This aspect affects the legal considerations of peacekeeping
operations. The two most important legal basis for the UN peacekeeping operations are mutual
consent and agreement by influenced parties and competence of various relevant parts or
28 Shepherd, L.J., 2008. Power and authority in the production of United Nations Security
Council Resolution 1325. International studies quarterly, 52(2), pp.383-404.
29 Osman, M.A., 2018. The United Nations and peace enforcement: wars, terrorism and
democracy. Routledge.
30 Kathman, J.D. and Melin, M.M., 2016. Who keeps the peace? Understanding state
contributions to UN peacekeeping operations. International Studies Quarterly, 61(1),
pp.150-162.
10

elements of United Nation31. The nations which are involved in conflict can negotiate by
involving peacekeeping forces or on the basis of bilateral concepts.
However, in such cases the role of UN organs may become superfluous. The
peacekeeping forces are known to be organs of articles 7, 22 and 29 of UN charter. These forces
are established by Security council, Secretary General and General Assembly32. These are the
principle organs of UN peacekeeping operations and it is required that there must be power
distribution among these organs so that continuous authority and peacekeepers can be
established. The security council assess the situation in which it is required to establish or to call
off the peacekeeping forces. The important decision to shift from peacekeeping to enforcement
also lies in the evaluation basis of security council.
As discussed in the article 41 expresses the suitability of peacekeepers because it explains non-
military enforcement which is the basis for peacekeeping. In situations when security council
fails to deploy its responsibilities then general assembly takes immediate actions for taking
collective measures33. It includes the cases of peace breach or aggressive use of armed forces.
Thus, on the basis of consent provided by other parties general assembly assures that powers are
asserted to peacekeepers in an organised way. For reporting to other two organs as well as to
formulate agreement and negotiations for making peace Secretary generals are engaged in peace
functions. They also perform the delegated peace functions assigned by the security council.
Regional institutes and UN peacekeeping
From the cold war years the peacekeeping has been taken as the matter of UN. However,
in recent years the regional organisations are also collaborating with UN to sustain peace in the
31 Ward, H. and Dorussen, H., 2016. Standing alongside your friends: Network centrality
and providing troops to UN peacekeeping operations. Journal of Peace Research, 53(3),
pp.392-408.
32 United Nations peackeeping and the question of reform.2011. [Online]. Accessed
through <https://www.e-ir.info/2011/07/18/united-nations-peacekeeping-and-the-
question-of-reform/>
33 Secretary-general stresses united nations unique role in preventing conflict, resolving
disputes. 2014. [Online]. Accessed through
<https://www.un.org/press/en/1998/19980420.SGSM6531.html>
11

regions. UN is only global peacekeeper organisation and thus there are possibilities when
conflicts may arise between UN and regional peacekeepers34. The key rationale for such conflicts
is the resource management and the level of individual efforts to receive required capabilities
from UN member states. For better understanding of conflicts and mitigation strategies there
must be cooperation between regional peacekeepers and UN.
For this purpose the frameworks such as partnering and subcontracting can be used.
However, it is not simple to implement such framework with UN which has intergovernmental
infrastructure. Along with these frameworks UN peacekeeping department also has institutional
partnership with European Union (EU) and African Union (AU)35. Institutional partnership
focuses on institutionalising cooperation between regional as well as global peacekeepers. On the
other hand operational collaboration varies for specific conflict situation and aims at improving
the conflicts violating peace in the region36.
Evaluation of conceptual frameworks for UN peacekeeping operation
Peacekeeping operations cannot accomplish their goals without an effective framework
which establishes an alignment between UN peacekeepers and regional peacekeeping forces.
There are two widely used frameworks as discussed above for the peacekeeping operations. The
first framework is subcontracting and is defined as an arrangement in which regional
organisations are responsible for peacekeeping but they are directed, monitored and authorised
by UN security council37. This kind of peacekeeping operations are completely in essence of UN
peacekeeping procedures. Within this type of frameworks since UN is international agency for
peacekeeping regional institutes aims to contribute towards international peace and thus they
34 Jenks, C., 2015. United Nations Peace Operations: Creating Space for Peace.
35 Bode, I. and Karlsrud, J., 2018. Implementation in practice: The use of force to protect
civilians in United Nations peacekeeping. European Journal of International Relations,
p.1354066118796540.
36 What peacekeeping does. 2019. [Online]. Accessed through
<https://peacekeeping.un.org/en>
37 Stojek, S.M. and Tir, J., 2015. The supply side of United Nations peacekeeping
operations: Trade ties and United Nations-led deployments to civil war states. European Journal
of International Relations, 21(2),
12

receive endorsement and authorisation from United Nations38. From the past few years military
interventions are increasing for implementing mandated peacekeeping tasks. With this
framework UN has credibility with less operational burden. Subcontracting also provides clarity
in legal aspects so that robust peacekeeping operations can be performed.
Contrary to this framework another framework is called partnership in which UN and
regional authorities both works in horizontal hierarchy and shares interconnected capabilities as
partners. The key advantage of this peacekeeping model is that it reduces the wariness from the
regional perspective. This model is differential to the interests of each regional partner in
peacekeeping mission and thus it has some inbuilt limitations. Partnership and subcontracting
both can be considered as mutually exclusive and effective frameworks for resolving conflicts
and barriers to peacekeeping39.
The peacekeeping operations are affected by insecure environment. For providing the
secure environment to peacekeeping forces sufficient number of troops are needed in the initial
phases of peacekeeping missions. In the scenario of extreme violence the security of UN field
personnels is also challenged as these forces are also attacked and harmed by the regional
elements. For eliminating these challenges UN security systems need to be more strong and
advanced40. The peacekeeping soldiers of UN are paid by their government. The majority of
these forces are from developing countries and thus it creates an additional financial burden on
UN members who can least afford.
Similarly, civilian forces are paid from budget sanctioned for peacekeeping department.
Thus, for meeting the need of personnels all members must contribute in terms of armed
facilities and personnels. It has been analysed by41 that the most devastating challenge faced by
38 Hunt, C.T., 2017. All necessary means to what ends? the unintended consequences of
the ‘robust turn’in UN peace operations. International Peacekeeping, 24(1), pp.108-131.
39 Jakobsen, P.V., 2016. Denmark and UN peacekeeping: glorious past, dim
future. International Peacekeeping, 23(5), pp.741-761.
40 Yamashita, H., 2012. Peacekeeping cooperation between the United Nations and
regional organisations. Review of International Studies, 38(1), pp.165-186.
41 Hatto, R., 2013. From peacekeeping to peacebuilding: the evolution of the role of the
United Nations in peace operations. International Review of the Red Cross, 95(891-
892), pp.495-515.
13

UN peacekeeping forces is that these forces are unarmed and are allowed to use force only for
the self defence. However, this makes very challenging and dangerous for the forces to ensure
their impartiality in complex peace keeping missions.
Suggested improvements
Analysing transition from peacekeeping to peace enforcement
As per42 peacekeeping operations of Bosnia encouraged security council of UN to assume
that peacekeeping events may not be sufficient and there is need of forceful framework called
peace enforcement. With the peacekeeping approach legal, military and political terms are
deployed with the consent from nations. However, when it is not possible for the peacekeeping
forces managing the situation with the consent then in order to establish peace it can be enforced
without taking consent. The peace enforcement activities are different from the peacekeeping
operations as enforcement is aimed at establishing peace by greater involvement of heavy armed
and military forces. For instance during Gulf war it was instead of peacekeeping methods UN
considered it more appropriate to enforce peace. As compare to enforcement peace keeping is
quite straightforward and simple43.
However, it requires monitoring and cease fire agreement and is possible in the
environment in which war preference is at the least level. Contrary to this in war region when
parties are not agreed to establish peace or to provide support to peacekeeping forces then to
control the situation as well as to assured the safety of peacekeeping forces UN uses enforcement
strategies44. The peacekeeping and enforcement both are different terms but multiple and quick
triggering can cause rapid shift from peacekeeping to peace enforcement. For instance rearming
during ceasefire negotiation can cause the shift to enforcement. The peacekeeping forces are
42 Peter, M., 2015. Between doctrine and practice: The UN peacekeeping dilemma. Global
Governance: A Review of Multilateralism and International Organizations, 21(3),
pp.351-370.
43 Na, N., 2016. The United Nations and business: A partnership recovered. Springer.
44 Who Keeps the Peace? Understanding State Contributions to UN Peacekeeping
Operations. 2016. [Online]. Accessed through
<https://www.isanet.org/Publications/ISQ/Posts/ID/5385/Who-Keeps-the-Peace-
Understanding-State-Contributions-to-UN-Peacekeeping-Operations>
14

reliable for the situations in which stable cease fires are present45. However, violence and
insufficient number of peacekeeping forces can demand the enforcement so that situations can be
bring to normal situation.
Challenges and loopholes
One of the biggest challenge for the peacekeeping operations of UN is peacekeeping
personnel. It is very difficult to find the troop contingents who can accomplish the peacekeeping
missions. Along with the recruitment of skilled military and police forces UN peacekeeping
department also has to assure that their demands are fulfilled so that missions can be
completed46. Since the need of peacekeeping forces is rapidly increasing it is also one of the
challenging aspect to secure capabilities such as medical services, tactical air support and
movement of operational resources.
Earlier the peacekeeping missions were limited to only bringing peace and the subjects
such as restoring laws and supporting economic growth were neglected. However, the without
consideration of these aspects the peacekeeping missions fails to achieve their complete goals47.
Thus, there is need that UN must get enough support from judiciary and police so that law and
orders can be restored in the affected regions.
Suggested reforms
The troubling situations in different parts of the world has raised the need to reform the
UN peacekeeping missions and approaches so that security and peace can be maintained48. Thus,
it is vital that drawbacks and limitations of peacekeeping operations must be identified so that
45 Harrington, C., 2016. 33. Peacekeeping. Handbook on Gender in World Politics, p.280.
46 Benner, T. and Rotmann, P., 2008. Learning to learn? UN peacebuilding and the
challenges of building a learning organization. Journal of Intervention and
Statebuilding, 2(1), pp.43-62.
47 Zaman., R. and Ranjan Biswas., N., 2016. South Asian Regionalism and UN
Peacekeeping Missions: A Case of ‘and Never the Twain Shall Meet’?. [Online].
Accessed through
<https://brill.com/configurable/contentpage/book$002fedcoll$002f9789004322059$002
fB9789004322059-s005.xml>
48 What is peacekeeping. 2019. [Online]. Accessed through
<https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/what-is-peacekeeping>
15

credibility of these operations can be enhanced for international peace. The financial budget for
peacekeeping is not applied equitably and thus member states faces several difficulties in
assessment of financial needs.
For developing more seriousness among member states regarding peacekeeping it is
required that UN must modify its assessment strategies and financial burdens must be shared
equally among all members. Despite having several peacekeeping missions still there are regions
which needs interference from UN to establish peace49. Thus, UN must re-evaluate its past
operations so that a better conflict resolving framework can be developed and drawbacks can be
identified. The civil conflicts can also get worsen by unplanned presence of UN peacekeeping
forces.
Thus, UN must be very judicious in identifying requirements of its peace operations and
to have an effective exit strategy. The peacekeeping operation department (DPKO) must be
transformed so that it can manage the increasing demands of peace operations. For this purpose
involvement of security council must be increased. One of the most important reform required
for the global peace is that DPKO must enhance its flexibility50. The key issue faced by the
peacekeeping forces is that they are not allowed to take necessary steps as per the situational
requirements.
Instead, a same framework is adopted to all operations which have varying needs. Since
some operations needs gratis military while the other needs mere professional supports for
making agreement. The flexibility in peacekeeping missions will help UN to understand the need
and scope of different missions so that they can be executed with more efficiency. The troops
and resources which are employed for peacekeeping missions are borrowed from the member
states51.
UN does not have its won standing armed force. Thus, it creates delay in availing
resources on time. It is one of the shortfalls of peacekeeping missions which must be addressed
49 Defeis, E.F., 2008. UN peacekeepers and sexual abuse and exploitation: An end to
impunity. Wash. U. Global Stud. L. Rev., 7, p.185.
50 Sambanis, N., 2008. Short-and long-term effects of United Nations peace
operations. The World Bank Economic Review, 22(1), pp.9-32.
51 Orakhelashvili, A., 2017. The legal basis of the United Nations peace-keeping
operations. In International Peacekeeping (pp. 45-84). Routledge.
16

by increasing resources. It is also observed that there is not code of conduct for the peacekeepers.
Thus, there have been regular reports of misconduct, abuse and exploitation by peacekeepers.
Such irresponsible and inappropriate behaviour cannot be considered as good for the
peacekeeping operations. UN must implement uniform standards for military personnels and
civilians which are participating in peacekeeping operations so that misconduct events can be
resolved52. Contrary to other UN functionalities peacekeeping operations have less accountability
and transparency. Thus, there must be an improved governance body so that peacekeeping
operations can also become more effective.
CONCLUSION
For every sovereign state international peace preservation is very essential and critical
aspect. Since globalisation has encouraged the international trade and connectivity the conflicts
and violence in one part of the world affects the other parts as well. It is also important from the
human perspective as violence and terror cannot be taken as healthy and safe for the quality and
safe living. It can be concluded from the study that UN peacekeeping operations assist the
nations in promoting peace and security by facilitating peaceful solutions of conflicts.
Peacekeeping activities by UN involves external military forces which are assisted by voluntary
pledges so that disputes can be resolved without participating in coercive activity except for the
purpose of self defence.
These peacekeeping activities are executed with the consent of host nation. It has been
also evaluated that proper funding for peace operations and quick impact projects can address the
various challenges of peacekeeping missions and stability. The trained peacekeepers provided
with mandatory resources can help them to deal with the critical and dangerous war situations. It
can be concluded that peacekeeping forces must be given permission to use forces and to decide
the priority of the missions so that they can achieve more success.
The effectiveness of peacekeeping operations can be enhanced by providing sufficient
fund so that expenditure management and logistic support can be improved and operations can
be deployed on time. Along with the international peace there are several global issues which
needs the interference of UN.
52 70 years and half a trillion dollars later: what has the UN achieved?. 2015. [Online].
Accessed through <https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/07/what-has-the-un-
achieved-united-nations>
17

Thus, it is required that before peacekeeping missions are established the states must
exhaust all possible means of setting disputes peacefully. It has been also analysed from the
study that peacekeeping operations are adhered to specific principles so that these activities does
not cross or harm the territorial integrity and sovereignty of the states. One of the critical aspect
which must be paid attention is that peacekeeping resources must not be employed or used at the
expanse of development resources of UN.
From the above discussion it can also be concluded that the peacekeeping operations
which are inconsistent must be ended at the earliest so that resources are not deployed for the
mission which does not have necessary solutions by peacekeeping forces. For such issues better
strategic approaches must be determined. It has been also noted that for successful peacekeeping
objectives there must be realistic criteria for termination of the mission within anticipated time
duration.
18

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