Comprehensive Analysis of Urban Heat Island Research and Solutions

This research paper delves into the multifaceted impacts of the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect, a phenomenon where urban areas experience significantly higher temperatures than their rural counterparts. The study examines the causes of UHI, including anthropogenic heat sources, building materials, and urban morphology, and explores its negative consequences on human health, energy consumption, and climate. The research employs various modeling techniques, such as CitySim, Urban Climate Model, and artificial neural networks, to analyze UHI effects across different cities globally, with a focus on seasonal variations. The paper also investigates potential mitigation strategies, including urban planning, building design, and the use of cool surfaces. The findings highlight the critical need for proactive measures by state authorities and urban planners to address the UHI effect and promote sustainable urban development. The report provides detailed insights into modeling UHI, including various approaches to assess the effects of UHI. The research also analyzes the impact of UHI on building energy demand and explores multi-scale modeling concepts to consider UHI effects at larger urban scales. The report covers the importance of mitigation strategies for environmental protection and highlights the role of urban planning and management agencies in formulating effective solutions.

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Research Paper on Urban Heat Island Research
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Urban heat island (UHI) affects urban's ecological niche both positively and negatively, though
the negative effects outweigh the positive hence making it undesirable. The negative impacts of
UHI mostly affect human health conditions, climate, and environmental surroundings. Quite a
number of research and studies have been conducted in this field. However, most of these studies
had much resemblance as the scholars used almost the same methodology of education, thus
giving almost giving similar outcomes. This research paper tends to take a different approach in
analyzing different cities through correlation, regression, and parametric statistical analysis to
find the most efficient and effective mitigation strategies for the adverse effects of the urban heat
island. Traversing through different cities around the globe, this paper expresses a dynamic
mechanism on the various impacts of UHI through different seasons. The outcome of analysis
proves that UHI is mostly experienced during winter and summer, but no doubt, the effects of
UHI can still be felt in spring or autumn. The research considered the use and analysis of various
models of UHI, such as the CitySim model, Urban climate model (UC), artificial neural network
model (ANN), MesoScale mode, city energy simulation models, etc.
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Figure 1: Summary causes and effects of UHI (Sadhesh, 2018)
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Executive summary..........................................................................................................................i
List of figures..................................................................................................................................iv
Introduction......................................................................................................................................5
Research objective.......................................................................................................................9
Literature review..............................................................................................................................9
Understanding of the urban heat island.....................................................................................11
Modeling of Urban Heat Island.................................................................................................14
Causes and effects of Urban Heat Island...................................................................................16
Adaptation and mitigation.............................................................................................................19
Urban Cities Modeling..................................................................................................................20
Urban climate modelling...............................................................................................................21
Building energy modeling.............................................................................................................23
Modeling interaction and modeling approaches........................................................................23
Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................25
References......................................................................................................................................27
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Summary causes and effects of UHI................................................................................3
Figure 2: Map of urban thermal index across north America........................................................10
Figure 3: Map of various land using Guangzhou china.................................................................10
Figure 4: Flow diagram of how to quantify urban Heat Island.....................................................14
Figure 5: Urban heat island............................................................................................................15
Figure 6: The urban Heat Island Process.......................................................................................16
Figure 7: Process of urban canopy level........................................................................................18
Figure 8: Graphical representation of UCL...................................................................................18
Figure 9: Urban heat island effect difference in rural and urban...................................................20
Figure 10: Summary of effects of UHI..........................................................................................23
Figure 11: Illustration of UHI models...........................................................................................24
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INTRODUCTION
Urban heat island refers to the effects that are associated with the formation and development of
urban centers and urbanization in general. The impact of urban heat island is experienced in the
urban centers where the thermal condition of towns is much higher than that in the suburbs. The
disparity in temperature is caused by the many activities that take place in urban centers ranging
from heat emitted by the household chimney, motor vehicles, factories, air conditioning systems,
and heat from hotels and restaurants within the city. These items consume a lot of heat energy
and, in turn, release heat into the atmosphere raising the temperature in the town (Santamouris.,
2014). The presence of tall superstructures and sky creepers in urban areas obstruct the wind and
airflow; therefore, reducing the speed of wind hence exacerbated the heat island effect in towns.
The effect of urban heat island has been more rampant in the past few years due to the rapid
development of urban structures and urbanization of towns. Another reason for the increases
urban heat island effect is the industrialization and centralization concepts where industries are
more concentrated in a confined location. Each factory releasing emitting heat as a result of
manufacturing or production processes increases the temperature of the area, thus causing urban
heat islands in those regions (Mirzaei., 2015). Weather conditions also have an impact on the
urban heat island as extremely hot weather conditions affect the work rate of a human and can
cause health complications and, in the worse scenario, cause death as a result of heatstroke.
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Most parts of the world's energy consumption are in the cooling and heating of structures and
buildings. This implies that in areas with a dense population of structural buildings consume a lot
of energy in heating buildings and at the same time, release a lot of heat as a result of cooling
these buildings. Heat exchange between buildings and the proximity of urban structures hinders
the circulation of air; therefore, these released hot gases are retained in the atmosphere rising
temperatures (Guo et al., 2015). With the fast-growing urbanization, the minimization of
buildings' energy consumption in towns has a tremendous advantage in reducing island heat
effect and proves potential in energy savings. The difference in temperature conditions in urban
areas and rural areas is mainly attributed to the urban heat island (UHI) effect caused by tall
structures in urban areas. The difference in wind speed is as a result of wind being obstructed and
sheltered by urban sky creepers. Recent research to establish the physiological correlation that is
derived from similarity patterns between height counters and isotherms showed that UHI
possesses a cliff (region of difference) at the urban-rural fringe in adjacent areas to urban cities
(Debbage and Shepherd., 2015).
The effects of urban heat island is a global challenge, as the heating and cooling phenomenon
occurs to almost all urban centers and is caused by constant constructions in urban areas and
human economic activities in these regions. Research also showed that urban heat island effects
are mostly caused by heat released from buildings, underlying surface, population density,
vegetation cover, and weather conditions.
According to the United States environmental protection agency, continuous development in
structural buildings, construction of roads, and development of other infrastructures cause
changes in the landscape and vegetation cover, leaving the land open making the land than were
once moist and permeable dry and impermeable (Zhou et al., 2014). These eventually cause
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changes in the climatic condition in urban areas, making cities warmer than the rural suburbs
forming an island of increasing temperature in the landscape.
City structures that include buildings, structural morphology, anthropogenic surface heat released
by automobiles, and ventilation equipment such as air conditioning are the most contributing
factors to the increasing temperature in urban centers, causing heat island. These conditions
eventually increase the building’s energy consumption as the system provides comfortability
inside buildings through the use of heat exchangers or refrigerators and also causes air pollution.
Prolonged effects of urban heat island cause greenhouse gas emission that negatively impacts on
human and animal health. Due to urban densification, increased anthropogenic heat, and decline
in vegetation cover, Intragovernmental Panel on Climate change in 2014 conducted research
aimed at finding mitigation plans and strategies that would help in minimizing the emission of
greenhouse gas effects in urban areas (Li, Bou-Zeid and Oppenheimer., 2014).
In relation to the cases mentioned above and the effects of urban heat island UHI. It is crucial for
state authorities and urban management together with urban planning agencies to formulate the
best alternative mitigation strategies through the formulation of regulations, better equipment
tools, and guidelines to offer protection to the urban environment (Santamouris ert al., 2015).
The primary objective of this report is to have a critical analysis of urban heat island,
understanding major contributing factors, dire effects, and possible mitigation strategies that best
overcome the urban heat island in metropolitan cities.
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Figure 2: Map of urban thermal index across Guangzhou (Xiong et al., 2012)
Figure 3: Map of various lands use in India (Kumar et al., 2017)
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The study in this report considered some of the major cities around the world, such as Bangalore
city, few cities in the United States, Mumbai in India, Sydney, in Australia. Urban centers
considered in the study as densely populated cities with massive structural buildings and have
had a consistent record of high temperature for a prolonged period of time (Lemonsu et al.,
2015). Therefore this project is designed to analyze and study the adverse effects of urban heat
island on urban characteristics by recording temperatures at strategically identified locations
along with the documentation of urban planning characteristics and anthropogenic heat emission
within the proposed locations of study. Result monitoring in relation to urban planning will help
in framing the characteristics of Urban Heat Island (Akbari et al., 2016).
Research objective
The primary objective of this research is to have a detailed study on the Urban Heat Island
impact on different selected locations with respect to urban planning and development,
microclimate analysis which will be used by urban developers and planners in mitigation of
urban heat island and climate change in newly developing areas
Another aim is to develop a deep understanding of the Urban Heat Island and compare the
research findings with the already published literature on the effects and solutions to UHI effects
to facilitate the development of the most effective mitigation plan.
LITERATURE REVIEW
There has overwhelming research on the study of urban heat islands by various scholars. This
section is to highlight and appreciate the efforts done so far in the quest to find sustainable
findings of the effects of the urban heat island. Most of the scholarly articles both on local and
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international context are quite extensive and had much focus on the mechanical aspect of the
urban heat island in urban centers, under these studies the correlation has been made in reference
to Normalized Difference Vegetation Index NDVI and the surface temperature (Reshmi et al,
2018). By definition, urban heat island is experienced when there is temperature difference
recorded in urban regions and rural regions on the same locality. There has been quite a number
of UHI evaluation phenomenon by different scholars giving a variety of suggestions and
recommendations on how to mitigate challenges that come with urban heat island. However, the
difference in this paper is that it aims at highlighting both direct and indirect influence of UHI in
different urban areas, using comparative analysis to give a one-best fit all solution to challenges
and effects caused by these temperature differences between rural suburbs and urban centers
(Peng et al., 2018).
United Nations in 2013 identified that the rate at which people were migrating from rural to
urban areas was fast increasing, and acknowledged that globalization and urbanization was an
upward trend. United nation’s report also projected that the number of people living in urban
centers would shoot to over 68% of the entire world population by 2050, meaning that as time
goes by the effects of urban heat island will continue to rise if most appropriate and effective
mitigation strategies shall not be established (Qin and Liao, 2016). However, the movement of
people from rural to urban is not something that can easily be regulated or even stopped since
many moves to urban centers in pursuit of a better life through employment opportunities. Some
for the business venture; therefore, most of the findings and recommendation from previous
scholars seems to be impractical and unrealistic.
Asian and African countries have been the key stakeholders in these research findings as
governments and ruling authorities in Africa, and Asia depends on the mitigation strategies to
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help in advance mitigation preparations as more industrialization and urbanization is yet
expected to be experienced on Asia and Africa, as United Nations suggests that some countries
in Africa would have four-fold population increase in their urban centers by 2050 (Awumbila,
2017).
A case study conducted in Bangkok, Thailand, revealed that the rate of urbanization between
1983- 2010 was the key contributor or significant factor that influences temperature rise in cities
with dense population and many necessary infrastructures. Urbanization, despite being a good
gesture of infrastructural development, has effects not only on the temperature balance and
emission of greenhouse gases to the environment but it also affects the ocean breeze patterns in
coastal cities (Ongsomwang et al, 2018). The climatic research unit CRU of the United Kingdom
meteorological department and intergovernmental planetary climate change of the United States
showed that the earth's atmosphere warms by 0.7 to 0.9oC since the 19th century (Pattnayak et al,
2017).
Understanding of the urban heat island
A temporal study on dynamics of urban heat island, conducted in Singapore in 2010, showed that
the peak of urban heat island occurs between 5-6 hours in the evening after sunset and that urban
heat intensity can reach a maximum of approximately 70C when in ideal climatically conditions
(Xu et al., 2016). From this case study, it was generally concluded that the maximum intensity of
UHI is experienced mostly during dry seasons and the period of southwest monsoon. While the
UH intensity being lowest during wet seasons or northeast monsoon period.
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Figure 4: Flow diagram of how to quantify urban Heat Island (Voogt, 2007)
The term island in UHI was explained as the region of high concentration of hot surface air in the
urban areas, and the temperature of surface air progressively decline as one extends into the
suburbs of urban centers. For a better understanding of urban heat, the island is through
analyzing the energy balance in urban areas, basing the analysis on the outgoing and incoming
energy flux of the urban system. The phenomenon explains that the energy absorbed by the
urban surface system produced by anthropogenic activities and solar radiation causes a physical
balance by warming up air through radiation and convection, storage of heat on earth's surface
and material, and moisture evaporation into the atmosphere environment (Voogt, 2007). The
partition of energy balance is what defines the moisture content and storage of temperature on
the surface material and gives the definition to urban's climate condition. The stable condition
dictates individuals' well-being. Urban heat island depends on quite a number of climatic
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processes. The most common phenomenon is the urban boundary layer UBL or urban canopy
layer UCL; these two best explains the formation of UHI in urban centers. The urban boundary
layer is governed by different processes and conditions of higher thermal inversion and high
altitude during the day (Voogt, 2007). On the other hand, processes of low height with lower
microscale record of thermal inversion at night.
Figure 5: Urban heat island (Jayasheela and Tholiya, 2018)
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Figure 6: The urban Heat Island Process (Voogt, 2007)
Modeling of Urban Heat Island
Over the past few years, several urban heat island models have been developed to help in the
prediction of UHI. The research published in 2015 (The recent challenges in the modeling urban
heat island) explores quite a number of models in their development and challenges associated
with each UHI model. The modeling of Urban Heat Island in this publication is divided into
three categories. These categories include Micro-scale models, building scale models, and city-
scale models. Other models are classified depending on the research themes. The most recent
themes used to categorize urban heat island models are model evaluation and enhancement,
urban heat island spatial-temporal variation, urban ventilation and surface material alteration,
health and comfort and finally future temperature forecast (Hien, 2016).
Urban heat island models are used to derive and develop stochastic models and deterministic
models. The process of model development commences with a dataset from metalogic or
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weather station being recorded either through onsite measurements or mobile measurements, the
data is submitted through radar to satellite station for the development of satellite thermal
imagery. These deterministic approaches, such as micro-scale CFD and Meso models together
with energy balance models, are applied incomparable scale (ranging between 8 -11). For the
development of the most appropriate model, the airflow model, multi-scale model, and balanced
energy models are combined to produce an enhanced model with improved accuracy on
simulations and analysis. In large cities, complex regression methods and sophisticated statistical
models such as artificial neural network (ANN) models are used to determine the UHI
characteristics of large urban cities (Ningrum, 2018).
To obtain a high resolution of the urban canopy level, it is recommended to use building and
microclimate models; however, despite having high resolution. These two models are relatively
expensive compared to other models as they cannot cover an extended area due to high
computational expenses and parameter complexity. Meso-scale despite having the capability to
have analysis over extensive geographical boundaries, produces low resolution, and accuracy is
quite small to give detailed information on the urban canopy layer (Hsieh and Huang, 2016).
Therefore this research commits to finding a better model that can produce high definition HD
resolution at a lower cost and still serve an extended geographical boundary to bridge the current
gap left by the Meso-scale model and building and microclimate models.
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Figure 7: Process of urban canopy level (Voogt, 2007)
Figure 8: Graphical representation of UCL (Voogt, 2007)
Causes and effects of Urban Heat Island
As discussed in the first chapter of this report, urban heat island is caused by quite a number of
factors that can be broadly be distinguished as urban and rural areas. Some of the factors
highlighted in chapter one are energy emitted from industrial processes, anthropogenic heat
released from air conditioning systems of buildings, mixed surfaces, fumes, and hot gases from
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hotels and restaurants, fumes from automobiles, and the heat capacity difference between natural
surface and building materials. Singh et al (2017) conducted a field verification of the Urban heat
island causes and effects in Lucknow city, established that the spread of UHI occurs in such a
manner that regions of high concentration transfer UHI effect to areas of low UHI through metal
surfaces, airport runways, industrial buildings, high-density parking zones, warehouses, railways
and areas of solid waste disposal sites. All these hotspot locations had similar air circulation
deficiency with high-temperature readings (Singh, Kikon and Verma, 2017). Findings from an
atypical study on the effects of UHI in Jakarta, one of the major Asian cities, showed that daily
mean temperature increases approximately by 1K, and an extensive change in land use majorly
caused this. The research estimates that the heat emitted in Jakarta had increased from 0.7 Wm-2
in the 1980s to approximately 78Wm-2 in the 2000s (Permatasari et al, 2019). This abnormal
increase in heat dissipation is attributed to ground surface heat flux, contributing to over 46% of
the total heat dissipated in the 2000s.
Differences in heat emission in various cities are due to albedo variation on these cities. Human-
made infrastructural developments such as building and road constructions have low albedo
compared to natural surfaces. Artificial infrastructures such as roads and buildings absorb more
radiation than natural surfaces (Ramamurthy and Bou‐Zeid, 2017). Thus, urban structures and
roads absorb more heat and become hotter during the day; for the energy balance process, hot
surfaces release heat absorbed into the atmospheric air in the process of cooling. Cooling of
surfaces, in turn, heats the atmospheric air whose flow is obstructed by tall buildings in the city;
hence this hot air just moves in circles around the urban atmosphere (Shastri et al, 2017).
Therefore the anthropogenic heat experienced in urban areas emanates from ventilation and
heating systems, internal combustion engines, and industrial activities. The energy uptake in
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industrial processes and automobiles engines dissipates heat energy as one of the output
products. According to Mather, he added that another source of anthropogenic heat in urban
centers is from building surfaces such as concrete and asphalt as they dissipate the radiation heat
falling on them to the surrounding environment. Therefore the amount or magnitude of
anthropogenic temperature depends on the size of the land area, as the extended land surface area
will have higher anthropogenic temperatures.
Figure 9:
Urban
heat
island
effect
difference
in rural
and urban
(Yang, et
al., 2015)
The effect of urban heat island is majorly attributed to the high intensity of human activities
within the cities and infrastructural constructions in urban areas. Though urban heat island is
recognized as an apparent urban climate condition, it’s effects are quite adverse as it cause
discomfort and health complications to humans. The persistent UHI effects eventually affect the
energy flow and material flows in an urban ecological niche, and it also alters different structural
functions as it provides a series of environmental and environmental effects on urban climate.
Some of the affected sections of the urban environment are the soil properties, hydrological
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situations, biological habits, energy metabolism, population health, and general material cycles
(Smid, 2018).
Another effect of UHI is extreme weather. The fluctuation in temperature during the day and at
night affects the weather pattern in urban areas. The temperature in urban regions becomes
extremely more cooling in cold seasons and extremely hotter during hot seasons. The design
occurs such that temperature steadily rises after sunset and optimize at around sunrise (between 6
– 7 a.m.) and the temperature drastically falls and reaches the lowest level in the evening ( at
around 3 – 5 p.m.)
ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION
Since the effects of urban heat island are adverse and affect most of the human's daily operations,
there is a need to develop better plans and schemes in metropolitan regions to help to mitigate
these challenges. This can be achieved through having several considerations ad balancing of
social-economic and biological activities within urban areas. Urban authorities need to have
logical and organized urban planning associated with proper spatial planning if sustainable
development within the city is thin to achieve because as thing stands in many cities. It seems
that the infrastructural developments made are having adverse effects on human lives hence no
sustainability at all (Herath et al, 2018).
As recommended by Biesbroek et al. (2016) that authorities need to consider administrative
regulations on the infrastructural developments in urban areas. These regulatory measures and
regulations on infrastructure and structural development would be one of the most effective
mitigation strategies for UHI. The authorities need to have well established spatial development
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plan to help control the events in architecture and built space and add on green open spaces
hence creating a friendly and comfortable urban environment (Biesbroek 2016).
Evapotranspiration of green and blue space cooling on urban buildings is another mitigation
strategy that would help in attaining the appropriate urban canopy level.
URBAN CITIES MODELING
Mesoscale models are essential in the analysis of tall structures and buildings in urban areas
since it provides a correlation between the individual scales of buildings and the meteorological
scales. There are different models that can be used to analyze the UHI level of a town depending
on the size of town to be assessed and availability of models. Urban Climate UC models are used
to link the boundary conditions that stem from UC model itself and the buildings to be modeled
by city energy simulation (CES). UMC model are used to analyze urban environment to establish
building’s canyon level (Dorer et al, 2013). In UMC and UC uses the convective and radiative
interaction aspect of buildings and environment. Every model has a database system
synchronized with the meteorological database to provide morphological, geographical and
building information after modeling. The figure below shows urban environment models and
building energy for different urban scales
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Figure 10: Summary of effects of UHI (Dorer et al, 2013)
URBAN CLIMATE MODELLING
Boundary layer conditions used in urban climate models are derived from Consortium for small-
scale modeling (COSMO) or COSMO-CML specific simulations. UC models are the mostly
used than UMC since it has simple simulation procedures. UMC model uses parameters and
quantities that needs to be interfaced on MM before being transferred to UMC for simulation.
These parameters include surface roughness, turbulence ad wind characteristics. Urban climate
Model UC used in urban canopy parametrization. The figure below shows UC used as a link
between UMC and MM models
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Figure 11: Illustration of UHI models (Dorer et al, 2013)
The gap that exist between mesoscale model and the grid scale is bridged by parametrization
from urban canopy layer UCL and the town energy balance TEB models are used to provide
direct exchange between a single atmospheric layer and the surfaces that are above street canyon.
The advantage of these models is that they are computationally effective and efficient and multi-
layer UCL models can efficient accommodate several atmospheric level that lie on the same
boundary layer. However, for UCL to analyze multi-level of atmospheric conditions, it requires
decentralization of mesoscale models to be near surface which significantly increases the cost.
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BUILDING ENERGY MODELING
Effects of urban heat island are the high amount of energy consumed by urban buildings for
heating and cooling processes. As mitigation to this challenge, buildings require building energy
modeling to help in determining the average energy requirement by a building before
construction thus allowing engineers to do the modifications to a recommended level (Li et al,
2019). CitySim model is used to predict the energy fluxes at various scales from city structures
to the neighborhood. CitySim include radiation model based on the compute timely irradiation on
building surface and thermal model.
Modeling interaction and modeling approaches
Produced models need an interface for components interaction and experts’ visualization of the
obtained data. There are several approaches that are currently used for modeling interaction and
they are as follows (Benmansou et al, 2017);
i. Geographic/Building Information System (GIS/BIS)
ii. Convection Model (COV).
iii. Radiation Model (RAD)
iv. Energy Model (ENER)
v. Local/urban air temperature and humidity values Tu/Ta
vi. Surface temperature Ts
vii. Urban wind velocity and turbulence parameters V
viii. Convective/ radiative heat fluxes.
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CONCLUSION
After reviewing several research studies on urban heat island published in the past ten years, it is
evident that almost 90% of the reviewed articles and research publications followed an almost
similar path with similar methods in conducting research analysis. Thus duplication and
presentation of related outcomes, by these, almost all the mitigation plans deduced and
recommended in these studies had similar income, giving the same results in the past ten years.
And to 10% of research studies carried out in the previous year’s only considered a single
geographical location in analysis hence had no clear comparison that would help in finding
general mitigation that would apply to a wide scope of geographic distribution.
From the mixed methods used in the analysis, it provided ethnographic engagement that has been
missing in the previous research and study conducted on urban heat island. By using this
methodology, it was much possible to apply spatial information on the current climate condition
of different cities that facilitated the agricultural, environmental analysis of the areas adjacent to
urban centers.
Human activities are the primary causative agent of the extensive urban heat island. This is
through urbanization, globalization, and general economic activities. The study revealed that
continuous infrastructural construction of roads and tall buildings in urban centers, to higher
percentage courses the UHI effect. This can only be mitigated by ensuring that any structural
development in urban centers is authorized by the municipality and the design run through any of
the UHI models for analysis and approved to be within the required climate standards of the area
of location. Other highlighted factors that affect UHI are geographical locations, including rural
suburbs, the topography of the urban center and climate, size of town linked to function, and
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daily activities. To neutralize these factors, the following are to be considered, and there should
be regulation on energy use within urban cities and most effective is to encourage the use of
renewable energy sources such as solar. This will help minimize the emission of greenhouse
gases into the atmosphere, thus reducing air pollution.
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