Aerodynamic Analysis: Vortex Generator Effects on Light-Duty Vehicles

This report investigates the aerodynamic effects of vortex generators on light-duty vehicles, focusing on drag reduction and fuel efficiency. The study begins with an introduction to vortex generators, their background, research aims, objectives, and research questions. A comprehensive literature review covers empirical studies, models, and theories related to aerodynamics, including Bernoulli's principle and the Coanda effect, identifying gaps in existing research. The methodology section outlines the research approach, design, and methods, including the use of SolidWorks simulation to analyze the vortex generator's impact. The findings and analysis section presents 3D views, installation steps, and graphs comparing the coefficient of drag with and without vortex generators. Secondary analysis explores airflow, velocity profiles, and the behavior of vortex generators. Discussion of findings includes a created model under automotive aerodynamics and analysis of forces. The report concludes by linking findings with objectives and provides recommendations.

INVESTIGATION FOR THE EFFECTS OF THE VORTEX
GENERATOR OF THE LIGHT-DUTY VEHICLE

Abstract
Here a model has to be created which is totally depends on the properties of the
aerodynamics. The main aim of this report is to creating the model of the automotive vehicle
in which the control over surface is needs to accomplished as well as the turbulence energy
of the vehicle as well as the drag force is needs to be determined. A vortex generator is a
control mechanism for aerodynamic drag that is present on the car's high specific surface
area. In airflow devices such as airlines and for automobiles, they are typically used. The
vortex generator generates a vortex as the airfoil moves relative to air, which slows the
isolation and aero deification of the stream and improves the efficiency of the wings as flaps,
elevators and rotors by replacing the slowly flowing flow separation in connection with the
surfaces. The main purpose of Vortex generators is to slow the flow of removing
contaminants on the moving object.
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Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction................................................................................................................................4
1.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................4
1.2 Background............................................................................................................................4
1.3 Research Aim.........................................................................................................................5
1.4 Research objectives................................................................................................................5
1.5 Research Questions................................................................................................................5
1.6 Research Rationale.................................................................................................................6
1.7 Research significance.............................................................................................................6
1.8 Research Framework..............................................................................................................7
Figure 1: Conceptual framework..............................................................................................7
1.9 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................7
2.0 Literature Review......................................................................................................................7
2.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................7
2.2 Empirical Study......................................................................................................................9
Figure 2: The properties and mechanism of aerodynamic.....................................................11
Drag............................................................................................................................................12
2.3 Models and Theories............................................................................................................13
Bernoulli’s principle..................................................................................................................14
Coanda effect.............................................................................................................................14
2.6 Literature Gap......................................................................................................................15
2.7 Conclusion...........................................................................................................................15
3.0 Methodology............................................................................................................................17
3.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................17
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3.2 Method Outline....................................................................................................................17
3.3 Research Onion....................................................................................................................18
Figure 3: Research onion........................................................................................................18
3.4 Research Approach..............................................................................................................18
3.5 Research Design...................................................................................................................19
3.6 Research Methods................................................................................................................19
3.7 Research Philosophy............................................................................................................19
3.7 Research Strategy.................................................................................................................20
3.8 Method of Data collection....................................................................................................20
3.9 Research Ethics....................................................................................................................20
3.10 Research Limitation...........................................................................................................21
3.11 Conclusion.........................................................................................................................21
4.0 Findings and Analysis..............................................................................................................21
4.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................21
4.2 Analysis................................................................................................................................22
Figure 4: The vortex generator in 3D view with dimension..................................................22
Figure 5: Stapes for installing the vortex generator...............................................................23
Figure 6: "Reynolds number (Re) Vs. Coefficient of drag graph without vortex generator."
................................................................................................................................................25
Figure 7: "Reynolds number (Re) Vs. Coefficient of drag (Cd) graph with a vortex
generator."..............................................................................................................................26
Figure 8: “Comparison of Cd between with vortex and without vortex Genera-tor”............26
4.2.1 Secondary Analysis...........................................................................................................27
Figure 9: Airflow over the car................................................................................................28
Figure 10: Velocity profile at the roof of a car without VG...................................................28
Figure 11: Flow around Vortex generator.............................................................................29
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4.3 Discussion of Findings.........................................................................................................29
Figure 12: The created model under the Automotive aerodynamics.....................................30
Figure 13: The act of force in the vehicle..............................................................................31
4.3.1 Secondary Analysis...........................................................................................................31
Figure 14: The RMS value of the vehicle..............................................................................32
Figure 15: Turbulence factor of the vehicle...........................................................................33
Figure 16: The final created model of the aerodynamics.......................................................34
4.4 Conclusion...........................................................................................................................34
5.0 Conclusion...............................................................................................................................34
5.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................34
5.2 Linking with Objectives.......................................................................................................35
5.3 Recommendations................................................................................................................36
5.4 Conclusions..........................................................................................................................36
Reference List................................................................................................................................38
Appendix........................................................................................................................................44
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Figure 1: Conceptual framework...................................................................................................10
Figure 2: The properties and mechanism of aerodynamic.............................................................14
Figure 3: Research onion...............................................................................................................21
Figure 4: The vortex generator in 3D view with dimension..........................................................25
Figure 5: Stapes for installing the vortex generator.......................................................................26
Figure 6: "Reynolds number (Re) Vs. Coefficient of drag graph without vortex generator.".......28
Figure 7: "Reynolds number (Re) Vs. Coefficient of drag (Cd) graph with a vortex generator.".29
Figure 8: “Comparison of Cd between with vortex and without vortex Genera-tor”...................29
Figure 9: Airflow over the car.......................................................................................................31
Figure 10: Velocity profile at the roof of a car without VG..........................................................31
Figure 11: Flow around Vortex generator....................................................................................32
Figure 12: The created model under the Automotive aerodynamics.............................................33
Figure 13: The act of force in the vehicle......................................................................................34
Figure 14: The RMS value of the vehicle......................................................................................35
Figure 15: Turbulence factor of the vehicle..................................................................................36
Figure 16: The final created model of the aerodynamics..............................................................37
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1.0 Introduction
1.1 Introduction
Vertex generator is nothing but a piece of metal which will reduce the air pressure in the vehicle.
If the vertex generator is not there in the car, then the fuel economy will be reduced. To improve
the fuel economy, the vertex generator will be used. When the car is moving from one point to
another point, then there is always a huge air pressure in the car surroundings. Those air pressure
will lead to less fuel economy as it is clear that the car has to drag the air to move forward. Due
to that, there will be huge friction between the car body and the air. For that reason, the car will
need more power from the engine. If this happens, then the requirement of the fuel will be more.
So that is a sign of an inefficient system. So, to reduce this problem, vertex generators are used.
This metastatic thing will be attached to the outer surface of the car because the vertex generator
will pass the air very smoothly. This means the pressure which will be created on the front
surface of the car will be reduced when those are leaving from the backside of the car.
1.2 Background
A very moving body will have the relative motion with another fluid body which will be
associated with the dragging force. This force will be created and stopping the body from
moving forward. So, the dragging force should be more powerful so that it will overcome the
thrust which will be created. There are different types of drag forces which will skin friction, air
pressure, induced, parasite, and wave. The aerodynamic surface is a vertex generator (Peng et al.,
2019), which will be helping to pass the air from one position to another. This generator will
consist of a bump and a small vane which will create a small vortex. This will basically be found
in many devices. Then Maximum use of this generator is in the aircraft. The generator is actually
the tip of the vortex which is energetic and the moving of the air, which will rapidly go from the
surface of the aircraft or a vehicle. The software work will be important to analyze the
performance of the vortex generator, which will be attached to the system. Here the simulation
will be done in the software called Solid works.
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1.3 Research Aim
The main aim of this project is to create a control surface which will control the surface of the
vehicle or any aircraft. The reduction of the effectiveness of the "trailing edge control of the
surface". The boundary layer re-energizing will be the next form of technique. In the case of the
mathematical calculation, there is a parameter which is actually expressed as the drag coefficient.
The value of the drag coefficient will be 0.2 to 0.5. The "bluff cubic objects are greater than 1.0,
and that of the least bluff bullets is less than 0.1". The standard calculated value should be on
that range only (Li et al., 2019). This will only be possible when all the objective is cleared on
this project. The fuel cost will be more if the vertex generator will not be present in the system.
To reduce the running cost of the car, the fuel economy should be perfect. So, the main objective
is to reduce the air pressure, which will be dragging or stopping the car. Which ultimately ended
up with the less efficient system? By using Solid works software, the whole thing will be
performed. This will be creating a different thing which can be analyzed practically.
1.4 Research objectives
● To determine the fuel economy of the car after attaching the vortex generator.
● To check the coefficient of drag in the aerodynamic surface.
● To determine the velocity of the air which is passing on all the sides of the car at various
speeds of the car.
● To understand the amount of air pressure which will be created on the surface of the
vehicles.
● To check all the standard parameters which will be related to the bluff object, coefficient
of drag, the streamline shaped, etc.
1.5 Research Questions
● What should be the value of the coefficient of drag so that it will show the better fuel
economy?
● What is the procedure to connect a vortex generator in the lightweight car so that the air
which is passing through the area will produce less amount of friction?
● In which velocity, what will be the standard value of Cd?
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● What is the relation between the drag force with the surface area, density of the air, and
the kinematic viscosity of the air?
1.6 Research Rationale
This research will be done for many reasons. In the various vehicle, there is the movement of
their physical body. Those bodies will actually have contact with the ground surface and the air
surface. Those two are reducing car efficiency (Yuan et al., 2019). The engine power will be
more wasted in these two aspects. The air source pressure will be more effective in all cases. In
the air, there is another factor which will come into the picture that is the air density. The density
of the air means the car will get more resistance. And if the car will get less resistance means the
air density will be less. This is the external factor which will be there. So, to reduce the external
fact, the proper vortex generator will be introduced. There will be lots of parameters which will
need to improve its Reynolds number, velocity, coefficient of drag. The force of the drag etc.
1.7 Research significance
The fuel cost will be more of the dynamic stability of the car will not be there properly. This will
only happen if the vertex generator is not present in the outer portion of the car. This fact will not
be effective if those components will not be present. The moment when those things are
attached, then the dynamic stability will be improved. When the air is passing through the
vehicle, then it will pass every portion of the body. So, the portion which actually feels more
pressure, on those portions, the vortex generator will be attached (Sundénet al., 2020). This will
help the car to move forward in an easy manner. This generator will be attached to each and
every portion of the car body. So, the main significance of the research is to provide dynamic
stability and also
provide more fuel economy. The research will be simulated in Solid works software. This
software shows the practical simulation of how the air will flow through the various parts of the
care body and where the air pressure will be maximum, which decreases the fuel economy.
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1.8 Research Framework
Figure 1: Conceptual framework
(Source: Self-created)
1.9 Conclusion
So, the vortex generator will act as a key catalyst of the lightweight car functionality. The car
which will not have this key catalyst then the fuel economy will be very poor. This will improve
when the vortex generator is attached. The air will flow straight to the vehicle when it achieves
speed (Fogueet al., 2021). This problem will occur when the car is reached at the cut-off speed.
Then when the air flows through the vehicle, then it will shape like a vortex type. There are lots
of parameters which will describe the vortex generator factors. The parameter will involve the air
density factor, the velocity of the air, the coefficient of drag, the force of the drag, the Reynolds
number, etc., each of those factors will be described in later sections.
2.0 Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
Vortex generator is counted as one of the vital parts of a vehicle, and mainly the necessity of this
device in the vehicles is the purpose of having control over the aerodynamic which is also a
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property of the vehicle as well. The position of the vortex is on the upper surface of the vehicle.
This metallic device is not being used in each and every vehicle, especially the vehicle, which
are the aircraft and some specific cars. For those types of vehicles, this metallic device has been
inserted into the mechanism of the device. First of all, how does the generator works is what
needs to be researched, which is considered to be the basic area before the detailed research on
the vortex generator? For the aircraft, what happens is the airfoil of the vehicle is in continuous
motion with the air, and at that time of staying and traveling with the motion, the vortex
generator is usually made a vortex. So what happens is the airfoil which reacts according to the
motion of the air, has some of the boundary layers in the surface area, and often those boundary
layers are considered to be very slow and also further is effects as well as the local separation of
the flow and as a result, the aircraft becomes very slow which is why the vortex generator has
been implemented in the vehicle, and at the time of motion which is varied to the airfoil, the
vortex generator is used to operate as well as create the vortex.
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2.2 Empirical Study
Ajarostaghi, 2021, according to this author, the main of the vortex generator is to make the factor
delay in the time of the flow, which is continuous under the air separation of the aircraft. And the
air separation happens at the time of the traveling, which is done by the surface of the object. The
implementation of the vortex generator is situated on the outer side of the aircraft, or in a simple
word, the external area of the vehicle is considered to be a place of implemented vortex
generator. The author says that the size and the shape of the vortex generator refer to a rectangle,
and sometimes it is considered to be a triangle in nature and size. Basically, aerodynamics is
meant for the study of air travel, and the platform or the surface by which the traveling has been
accomplished s considered to be a solid surface, and all these studies are under the mechanism of
aerodynamics. So mainly according to the author, the entire report is based on the purpose of
making a model on vortex generator so that in the aircraft the motion of the air can stay
continuous with the air and also as well the surface of the aircraft vehicle needs to be under the
control which means the surface controlling is also a very vital part of the aim in this report. The
placement of the generator has been done in a way that the generator can make an angle with
respect to the airflow of th vehicle, and the purpose of making the angle is considered to be the
attack which can be controlled as well as so that the attacks can be acquired. At the time of
creating the angle, the vortex is used established energy, and the energy has been connected to
the surface of the external structure, and the layers of the surfaces are also related to the flow of
the energy from the vortex generator. Sometimes at the aircraft and sometimes at the golf ball,
the use of a vortex generator is very common. In the case of the golf ball as well as the aircraft,
when the solid material or an object is moving from some certain place to some other place, and
that too with the flow of the air and also the layers of the surfaces which is considered to be the
surface of the air and layer is from the air itself so basically the time of the traveling of the object
under a certain surface the object is reportedly moved along with the layers of the air. In terms
of speed, the boundary layers of the air are often considered to be very slow and vicious as well.
Also, more often, it has been seen that the boundary which is under the air has been considered
to be totally separate from the particular object and which is why it creates the wake, and as a
result of the wake, the vehicle faces a lot of errors and one of the most vital error is the object is
being dragged and as well as the reduction in the speed also has been noticed. But the
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requirements for the vehicle have very high energy, and as well as for the loss in the vehicle, the
potential is one of the most demanded requirements in the vehicle. So what the vortex generator
does is for the purpose of adjusting various issues which have been captured in the aircraft
vehicle, on the wings of the aircraft's vortex generator is used to delay the time of the separation
under the surfaces of the layers in the air and the generator also created turbulence which is
considered to be minor and all the aspects are being done at the time of the separation which has
been postponed or being delayed by the mechanism of the vortex generator (Hanayshaet al.
2020). after making this approach, some kinds of development can be noticed, which are the
turbulence which was being created due to the vortex, and for the reason of the minor turbulence
the percentage of the energy efficiency has been increased a lot from the earlier stages also the
speed also has been increased and due to the increased percentage of the speed in the vehicle
energy is now can be capable continue with the object of the aircraft. In the below diagram, the
entire procedure of the aerodynamic has been depicted, and the mechanism of the aerodynamic
as well the vertex generator is connected to each, due to the fact that a better circuit and a model
for aircraft vehicle is the target so which the generator needs to be demonstrated and that too
under the properties of the aerodynamics mechanisms. Here in the below diagram, it is clear that
the flow of turbulence, as well as the flow of laminar, is considered to be the most vital
requirement in the aerodynamic study(Helalet al., 2018). Due to the application turbulence flow
very less amount of separation with the layer boundary can be possible, and due to that, a
dimples structure can get, and for the area where the laminar flow has occurred, the percentage
of the separation has been increased, and after that, the structure has become very smooth.
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Figure 2: The properties and mechanism of aerodynamic
(Source:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280237537_Effect_of_Vortex_Generators_on_a_Strea
mlined_Sports_car)
Zheng, 2020., according to this author he has been stated that the use of the aerodynamic study
can be implied into two different vehicle which is the automotive and the aircraft aerodynamics
so the reason behind highlighting this reason is due to the fact that difference is needed to judge,
so that is why the author has been stated that separating the properties of the automotive
aerodynamics and the aircraft it needs to be differentiated(Hosseiniradet al. 2017).
● First of all, the author says the divergence can be counted from various angles, and
several points and ways can be counted at the time of the differentiation.
● Automotive vehicles are compared to be very much less in terms of the streamline and
which is considered to be the shape of the vehicle. And from this, it is very much clear
that the structure of the aircraft has been more preferred to be the option of the research
for the aerodynamic property.
● The most noticed difference between the two of the aerodynamics is the automotive
vehicles are being developed and operated on the ground surface where the aircraft is
totally being set up according to the air (Huang et al., 2018).
● Then is the difference which is often being noticed is the speed of the operation is very
less in the automotive vehicle and for the aircraft's the speed is very much balanced, and
it is the fact that the speed which is represented as a square often varies with the drag of
the aerodynamics.
● Then there is the fact that some of the facilities the ground vehicle has which the aircraft
don't have which is considered to be the freed of very few degrees which are very rare to
be found in the aircraft. As well in case of the automotive, the motion in it is not that
much affected as like the aircraft due to the fact that, in the aircraft, the motion of the air
is continuously working according to the airfoil of the aircraft, and that is why the motion
is often got affected which is not has been identified in the automotive aerodynamics
(Jafroudiet al. 2021).
● The vehicles under the automotive aerodynamics are considered to be based on some of
the designs which are considered to be part of the specific constraints of the design, and
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those designs are the purpose of the intend to the standards is needs to be followed for the
purpose of the high safety. And the most preferred example for high safety would be the
dead structurals for the purpose of acting like the type of crumple zones. And last but not
least, all the designs have to maintain some of certain rules and regulations as
well(Jeonget al., 2019).
Da Silva, 2019, accordion to the author, the automotive as well as the aircraft both are needed to
be studied in a detailed way, by stating the comparisons only the mechanism of both of the
dynamics cannot be cleared. For the purpose of the study and the research of automotive
aerodynamics, the needed area of demonstration is the modeling of the computer as well as the
testing of the tunnel (Kakalejčíket al., 2019). Also, after the testing of the tunnel, which is the
wild one, what happens is that due to several types of equipment, the tunnel more often got stuck
with the rolling road. In terms of the aircraft, the floor which is moves and considered to be the
working floor is generally moves with respect to the flows of the air. If the speed of the flowed
air has been increased, then the speed of the moving of the working floor also will be increased
as well. Also, apart from the description of the automotive, the aircraft also has been discussed in
the beginning section, but the exact definition of the drag also needs to be studied.
Drag
Basically, the application of this element is considered to be the force of the aerodynamics,
which is used to be operated for the purpose of creating the opposite of the motion of the vehicle
under the motion of the air, which is continuous with the airfoil of the aircraft. In the aircraft,
each and every part is being generated with the Drag (Khan et al. 2017). That is why it refers to
the force under the properties of mechanical studies. This mechanical force is considered to be
created by the solid materials as well as by the fluids, for example, the gas and the liquid, so the
connection between the solid stuff as well as the liquid stuff is common for the force which has
been known as the drag due to the fact that from the gas as well as from the liquid the desired
force has been generated. For the generation of the force of the mechanical properties, it is very
important to hold the connection between the solid materials with the fluid. And if no fluid has
been found or created, then it is clear that there will be no force going to be created which is the
drag. Basically, there will be no drag.
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The flow of air plays a critical role in designing the vehicle in the automobile industry, So, to
make use of the airflow, the vortex generator is the perfect device. The devices use the basic
principle of the vortex. The main application of this kind of generator can be seen in the aircraft.
As, the aircraft is moving at a significant amount of speed and sometimes it requires an
additional speed due to this reason, the vortex generator can be a great component which
increases the speed in the airspace of the Aircraft (Kibble et al. 2017). But the automobile
industry has banned the usage of this kind of device in their commercialized vehicle segment.
The generator is the single piece of equipment installed at the surface of the aircraft at a certain
angle. Due to their positioning, the equipment leverages the external airflow and creates their
own vortices; this allows the devices to create the lift, which allows the speed of the vehicle or
the aircraft. Though the aviation industry uses the equipment heavily for the commercialized
section, usage of this device is prohibited due to safety and control-related reason. And another
reason is that the design of this kind of device is very complicated. It requires specialized people
to do the task; there are certain designing constraints that the industry has maintained over the
years. "The efficiency of this device massively relies on its height and the width proportion. If
the height and width were not designed correctly, then the device will fail miserably. So, to avoid
this constraint, the device is only used in a specific sector in the automobile industry". The
sporting car uses the vortex generator to gain a competitive advantage, and the racing car also
requires speed, so the addition of the vortex generator can be helpful in the sector.
This paper will provide detailed insight on the effectiveness of this generating device on the
"Light-duty vehicle". To do this research, this paper has used the help of CFD simulation. The
simulation will provide a detailed idea of different aspects of the generator. The next section of
this chapter will discuss the "models and theories" that are related to this topic.
2.3 Models and Theories
This device uses "the aerodynamic principle". The principle is based on three fundamental
forces, and those three forces are: "Thrust, Drag and the last one is Lift". These three
fundamental forces have three distinct purposes in the field of aerodynamics. Using these three
fundamentals’ forces, the vortex generator is created". The first fundamental force is the thrust.
The first fundamental force allows the aircraft to move in the forward direction. The second
fundamental force allows the aircraft to hold its body weight back, and it does allow it to move
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in any direction. "And lastly, the third fundamental force allows the aircraft to stay in the air. The
vortex generator uses the last fundamental forces. Using the lift principle, the vortex generator
accomplishes the task on the vehicle or on the aircraft".
Bernoulli’s principle
The principles state that the pressure of the moving gas and the velocity of moving gas are
inversely proportional to each other. To simplify the statement, "when the velocity of the moving
gas is increased, then the pressure on the moving gas will decrease, and when the pressure of the
moving is increased then the velocity of the moving gas will be decreased". This principle has its
own drawback. As this principle does not explain in detail the flying mechanism of the aircraft
but this theory has significant importance while designing the vortex generator for the LDV.
Coanda effect
This effect is also known as the "wall-attachment effect". This effect describes the key principle
that allows the vortex generator an efficient complementary device for the aircraft. It describes
"the tendency of moving fluid". The movement of fluid can be gas or liquid. "The statement says
that the fluid that attaches to its surface always flows along the attached surface. The movement
of the fluid does not occur without any interruption. The present friction in the attached wall
reduces the speed of the flow of the fluid. And the amount of friction present on the surface is
known as skin friction. Thus, this friction sticks the fluid into the surface. The curvature plays
the crucial roles in this effect". This principle helps to design the vortex generator in the Aircraft.
The principle specifically helps the manufacturing at the time of placing the "vortex generator"
on the Aircraft. The device will be placed in such a way that it can leverage the power angle to
create the strong vortices for "the aircraft or for the vehicle which helps the vehicle to reduce the
drag in the vehicle". Thus, the device will prove to be an efficient addition in the commercial
vehicle segment, and it will increase the effectiveness of the vehicle. The theory has not
considered the size of the wing and or the device; it only considers the flow of the air, which can
be manipulated by placing the device in the correct position.
Those three fundamental forces and these two theories of aerodynamics play crucial roles in
designing the ideal vortex generator for the vehicle. The generator uses the lift principle to use
the vortices for the vehicle. The vortices allow the vehicle to reduce the drag forces in the
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vehicle. To have the effective result of the generator, the vehicle must have multiple vortex
generators installed in the vehicle. This will allow the vehicle to reduce the drag in the vehicle
more effectively. Another thing is that the location of the generator plays a crucial role in
producing the expected result of the generator. Before installing the generator, one must look for
the ideal angle, which will help to manipulate the flow of air around the device and help the
device to accomplish its task for the vehicle.
2.6 Literature Gap
The above empirical study is based on the various information is available at trusted sources on
the internet. The quality of the resources is satisfactory, but there are few concerns in the study
which need to be mitigated in the upcoming research. The main concern is that the device is
massively used in the aviation industry. So, the data was based on that industry. This can be a
concerning issue for the research as the data of the "Lightweight vehicle" is not available. Due to
this, this has created a point of concern for this literature review though they cover all the aspects
of the "vortex generator". Further, this paper will discuss the simulation of the device, which
helps to get a detailed insight into the key elements of the generator which allow the device to
perform a certain task. This will help the researcher to get insight into the effectiveness of the
device on LDV. Another point of concern for this project is the most of the time, and the
researchers are very fond of their particular perception about the certain. This will not allow the
researchers to get the proper and fair understanding of the research result. This paper has taken
the proper step to remove this concern. To deal with this concern, the researcher must be aware
of their own biases. Once they know about their own biases, then this perception dilemma will be
removed from the research, and it will help the researcher to get a fair understanding of the
research.
2.7 Conclusion
The chapter has explained the different studies that are published on the various trusted sources
on the internet, and the journals were published by famous researchers who have worked in this
field for several years. Their knowledge and experience on this topic help to get the massive
insight on the effectiveness of the "vortex generator for the light-duty vehicle". This section has
18

covered various aspects of the generating device. And to provide a better understanding of the
device, this paper also uses the CFD simulation. The simulation has increased the clarity of the
understanding. The simulation shows the performance of the device in various circumstances.
Thus the simulation increases the depth of understanding of this topic. Though the device is
massively used in "the aviation industry", so to adapt this device for commercial vehicles, a lot
of research is necessary for this field.
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3.0 Methodology
3.1 Introduction
This section of this dissertation plays a crucial to understanding the process of the research. This
section will give an indication of the guideline that this paper took while researching the subject.
This section plays a significant role in getting valid information on the topic. So, in order to get
valid information on the topic the designing the section has significant importance. This section
is designed in such a way that it can extract quality information on the topic. This section also
describes the approach that is taken while doing this research. The section totally comprises a
total of eleven subsections. This subsection will provide detailed insight into the process taken to
research this topic. The first process is the outline of the method that is for the research purpose.
The method outline will provide a brief idea of this dissertation. This step will discuss each and
every step that is taken for the research purpose. The section also describes the software required
for this paper. The software will play crucial roles in designing the "vortex generator of the
lightweight vehicle". Further, this paper will also provide detailed insight into the effectiveness
of the vortex generator on the vehicle. The following section will provide detailed insight into
the process of this research.
3.2 Method Outline
This section will describe the methods that are taken while designing the "vortex generator for
the vehicle". But before starting the method outline for the dissertation, this generator is mainly
used in the car for aesthetic purposes (Fogue, 2021). As per the regulation, this device on the car
is prohibited as this generator has the capability of increasing the speed of the vehicle. This kind
of generator has dependencies on height and width. If the shape and design of this device do not
cross the threshold values, then this device will not produce an efficient result for the vehicle.
To design this "Turbomachinery device" for the vehicle (Yuan, 2019). The first thing is needed
to understand the aerodynamics of the turbomachine. This paper will take the help of the CFD
simulation. The simulation will provide a real-time environment and helps to understand the
technicalities and the major factors that are influencing this device to move a certain way.
However, this is not the only requirement to design the "vortex generator for the vehicle". There
20

are few more requirements as well. Those requirements are: "Vector generator geometry
modeling and the mesh generation of the model of the vector generator of the vehicle".
3.3 Research Onion
Figure 3: Research onion
(Source: https://15writers.com/research-onion/)
3.4 Research Approach
The above section shows that there are many approaches that the researcher can take while doing
the research. Every research approach has its own positive and negative parts. The research
onion shows that there are a total of two types of the research approach. These research
approaches are: "Inductive and the deductive" (Li,et al. 2019). The inductive approach is often
known as the approach which comes from the new dataset. So, in simple terms, the inductive
process is referred to the understanding gain from the new information. This approach provides a
new understanding which is based on the new information (Moore, 2021). Another approach is
known as the deductive approach of the research. The approach relies on deducing the old theory
or the existing theory based on the deduction. It creates a new understanding of the topic.
21

3.5 Research Design
The design aspect of the research helps the researcher to prepare for the research. The research
design of this paper is based on the data and various journals that are available in the trusted
internet resources. The research is designed in such a way that it covers all the journals on the
subject and as well as it covers all the data (Peng, 2019). This research has taken both methods.
This method is crucial to more data collection; this method will be described in the data
collection section and the research method section. Both methods are: "qualitative and
quantitative" data. These two approaches will help to cover all the necessary aspects of designing
the vortex generator for the vehicle. The design of the vortex generator will be done in Solid
works software.
3.6 Research Methods
There are many methods that exist to conduct the research, and the method plays a crucial role in
research completion and data collection. If the method of the research is not aligned with the
purpose of the research, then it has a drastic effect on the result of the research, and it will not
provide a correct understanding of the project. So before choosing the right method, the
researcher has to find a method that is aligned with their research purpose. "The various types of
the research methods are: multi-method, mono method and the last is the mixed method". The
research of this paper has taken the primary data. "The primary data analysis of the effectiveness
of the vortex generator on the vehicle is done due to this reason the paper has considered
conducting the research using the mono method".
3.7 Research Philosophy
The philosophy is the vision that works like a compass which helps the researcher to complete
his or her project. The philosophy is the mindset approach towards the research in the research
onion picture. The picture depicts there are many types of research philosophy. Each philosophy
has its own advantage and the disadvantage (Ravina-Ripoll,et al. 2021.). Each of the variety
helps the researcher to get the job done and understand their research in a different way. "The
picture depicts a total of four types of research philosophy, and these various types are:
positivism, realism, Interpretivism, and the last one is pragmatism". This paper has conducted
this research by using the positivism philosophy. This philosophy allows the researcher to
22

understand this research in an objective way. This paradigm of this philosophy states that the
researcher and the research are not dependent on each other.
3.7 Research Strategy
The strategy is often known as the technique, and the strategy here refers to the technique which
the research took while conducting the research. The strategy plays a crucial role in deciding the
effectiveness of the research method. The research strategy of this project is to conduct this
research efficiently and effectively (Park, 2019). So, to design the vortex generator for the
vehicle, this paper has taken the help of the solid work software. The software helps to create the
virtual model of the vortex generator. "To design the Vortex generator, there are three things in
particular which play the important role one is the geometrical dimension of the component. The
dimension is a massive factor in using the external flow within the vehicle. So, the correct
dimension is absolutely a must”, “the second thing is the aerodynamic understanding of the
components, and the third thing is the mesh generation (Vejačka, 2019). The mesh generation
part is the complicated part of designing a vortex generator of the vehicle".
3.8 Method of Data collection
The data collection plays a crucial role in the success of the project. The project has relied on
qualitative data. The method plays a crucial role in gathering data. The different methods serve
the different purposes of the research. So, to choose the exact right kind of method becomes very
crucial for the research. Before choosing one method, the research can opt for multiple methods
for data collection as this increases the diversity of the research and helps the researcher to get a
wide view of the topic (Liu, 2017). "The data is collected from the various sources, to understand
the effect of the vortex generator on the lightweight vehicle". Their several journal data were
studied to make this paper along with that there are many surveys that help the understanding of
the topic. And further, the data is collected from the simulated software model.
3.9 Research Ethics
Research is a long process; research consists of many stages. This paper has conducted all the
stages of the research by maintaining all the rules and regulations of the research conducting
protocol (Black, 2017). This paper has maintained all the important ethics of the research.
23

Further, this paper ensures that all biases should be removed while conducting this research.
Once the biases are removed, this helps the researchers to get a fair understanding of the topic.
3.10 Research Limitation
The paper has conducted research on the effectiveness of the vortex generator. The research has
covered many journals from the trusted sources, and the software simulation shows that there are
few limitations in conducting research (Sullivan, 2019). The first limitation of the research is to
survey and the questionnaire. The device is still a potential, so the data might not be fully reliable
to understanding the effectiveness of the device. And further, there are rules in the industry that
the device can only be used for aesthetic purposes (Park, 2021). It does not allow the device to be
fully used in the commercial vehicle. Due to this reason, there is a lack of adequate data to get
the proper understating of the effectiveness of the device.
3.11 Conclusion
This section has provided insight of the conducting the research methodology, and this section
also provides several other factors which are linked to the research methodology, this section has
given the idea on every stage operation of the project, and this section provides detailed insight
on the approach that the researcher took while conducting this project.
4.0 Findings and Analysis
4.1 Introduction
In this section, all the dependent parameters and the independent parameters will be discussed.
And the design parameters which will create the direct effect on the velocity of the car will be
discussed in this section. The design is based on the data which will be present in the secondary
section. The vortex generator will have specific locations. Those locations will vary according to
the size of vehicles. This report will actually talk about lightweight vocals. This means the speed
of the vehicles should be more. The lightweight vehicles are used in sports. So, the sports
vehicles need dynamic stability (Raja et al., 2020). The dynamic stability of the vehicles will
depend upon the air balance ratio on both sides. The vortex generator will help the car to move
24

faster. In the below section, this will be discussed later. So ultimately, it will help the system to
stabilize itself.
4.2 Analysis
A sample vortex generator will be designed, which will have all the parameters. All the
dimensions are mentioned in the picture. Starting from the thickness of the VG to the ending, all
crucial measures will be taken. The vortex generator thickness will be approximately equal to the
boundary layer thickness. From the calculations, "the boundary layer thickness at the roof end
immediately in front of the separation point is about 5 mm". And the height of the VG will be
estimated is about 5mm.
Figure 4: The vortex generator in 3D view with dimension
(Source: https://www.ijser.org/researchpaper/Drag-Reduction-Using-Vortex-Generator)
The diamond shape structure will be considering all the side parameters. The length of the vortex
generator will be about 10mm (Li et al., 2018). This will be the designer part of the whole body.
The next portion is the placement of the vortex generator. Step by step, this will be placed in
various locations of the body of the vehicles. The below figure will be shown who this thing will
be placed.
25

Figure 5: Stapes for installing the vortex generator
(Source:ijser.org/researchpaper/Drag-Reduction-Using-Vortex-Generator)
As the experiment will be done based on the secondary analysis. This analysis will be developed
by creating the subsonic wind tunnel. These tunnels will be used for the mechanic's lab. By the
smoke wind method, this experiment will be performed. Mechanical engineering will have the
most of the used in this method. "The ratio of cast-er oil and paraffin used in the mixer was 1:3".
In this experiment, the wire which is chosen is tungsten wire. This war is chosen because it has a
high melting point. Here the smoke paraffin and the castor oil will be used to improve the
viscosity of the mixture. This is all the initial setup. After that, it will have some calculation
which will result in different segments.
The calculation will be given below. The layer measured on the base level will be having the
optimum height (Ko et al., 2018). The vortex generator height will be equal to the thickness of
the boundary layer. According to the mathematical calculations, the flow of the boundary layer
thickness will be given by δ,
So, δ = 5 √ (x * v / V)
Where the x is denoted as the length of the flow in the point of separation.
Now the analysis will be checked whether the force of the dragging will be reduced or not. That
will be the main part of the models. These models will be having both the scenarios, without and
with. This will be calculated on the basis of the drag balance. "the experimental values plotting
coefficient of drag Vs. Reynolds number graph was plotted".
The next thing is the calculation of the drag force.
The formula for the drag force will be,
Fd1 = ½ * Cd1 * የ 1 * A1 * v1 ^ 2
26

The formulator calculating the Reynolds number is
Re1 = V1 * l / v1
The indications of all the parameters will be given below.
Here,
A1 = Surface area, 0.0241 m2
v1 = steam velocity of free air
Fd1 = Drag force
ρ1 = Densities of the air
ν1 = Kinematic viscosities of the air
The drag coefficient
Cd1
The number of
Reynolds (Re1) * 10
^ 4
Dragging force Fd1
(N)
Velocity V1 ( m / s )
6.848 1.22 0.081 0.984
3.214 2.455 0.164 1.81
2.301 3.745 0.236 2.84
1.984 5.012 0.412 3.81
2.4855 6.14 0.845 4.85
This table will be constructed without the help of a vortex generator.
27

Figure 6: "Reynolds number (Re) Vs. Coefficient of drag graph without vortex generator."
(Source: https://www.ijser.org/researchpaper/Drag-Reduction-Using-Vortex-Generator)
So, as it can seem that the vortex generator will not be present in the graph. So as the situation
goes, the cure will decay in nature (Ko et al., 2018). This nature of the curve will have various
points. These points are actually comparable with the graph, which will be having the vortex
generator. The graph will not have much difference.
Now one table will be constructed with having the vortex generator.
Drag coefficient,
which denotes as Cd1
The number of
Reynolds
Which denote as
(Re1) * 10 ^ 4
Dragging force
Which denote as Fd1
(N)
Velocity
Which denote as V1
(m/s)
6.008 1.22 0.071 0.984
3.001 2.45 0.144 1.810
2.007 3.74 0.236 2.840
1.784 5.012 0.312 3.810
2.3855 6.44 0.745 4.850
28

Figure 7: "Reynolds number (Re) Vs. Coefficient of drag (Cd) graph with a vortex
generator."
(Source: https://www.ijser.org/researchpaper/Drag-Reduction-Using-Vortex-Generator)
The curve will look similar. But if the companions of the two curves will be done, then it will
look some different. So the companies will be given below.
Figure 8: “Comparison of Cd between with vortex and without vortex Genera-tor”
(Source: https://www.ijser.org/researchpaper/Drag-Reduction-Using-Vortex-Generator)
The red color section will be donated to the presence of the vortex generator. So, the curve which
has the vertex generator will be a little bit more down as compared to without a vertex generator.
That means the coefficient of drag will be less compared to without a vertex generator. So, from
the practical analysis, it is clear that VG has the right effect on the aerodynamics of the vehicles.
This only happened in this experiment. So, if the second method is used, then definitely the
definition of the improvement of the fuel economy will be done. From the figures, it is clear that
the separation of the in front of the rear end when there is nothing called the vertex generator.
That is why the vertex generators are used in the rear end (Duffy et al., 2018). From the graph in
the figure, it is very clear that if the coefficient of the drag will be decreased when there is an
increase in the Reynolds number. Both the graphs will be the same, but the only difference is, the
second graph will actually be more decaying or more decreased in nature. That is why this will
be the best graph which is based on the VG connection. It is a good thing that if the graph is
decreasing more, then that will be more effective in nature. This "studied to install immediately
29

upstream of the flow separation point in order to control the separation of airflow above the
sedan's rear window," and it will be the most effective way to improve the characteristics of
aerodynamics. There is mainly way which is basically reducing the fuel economy. But here, the
project is all about lightweight cars. Or reading cars. This needs stability in aerodynamics and
the frictionless body. The body should be designed in such a way that it will reduce air friction.
Now the main thing introducing is the value coefficient of drag which comes out as the
experiential result. That value is about 0.214.
4.2.1 Secondary Analysis
Here the secondary method of analysis will be done. With respect to the previous data, this
experiment will be performed. This basically happened due to the effective result. The efficacy
will only improve if the vehicle will have the proper analysis. Aerodynamic is basically the part
of aerospace engineering. As the car, or be specifically the lightweight car, will be dealing with
the air friction as well as the ground friction. The vehicle which will pass the air for the body is
creating so much pressure in the car. That will actually resist the evasively to mauve faster. In
the above analysis, there are few charts that will be given that the chart will belong to the speed
and the air density (Ali et al., 2020). As the density of the air will be improved in a similar way,
the friction associated with the whole thing will also be improving. Now the main experiment is
to analyze how this thing on air pressure will be reduced or be specifically, the dragging effect of
the air will also be reduced drastically. This experiment will be done in a tube full of components
that are actually analyzing the flow of the air in the top portion of the car. The maximum
pressure will happen at the top of the vehicles. This maximum pressure will be reduced if the
vortex generator will be installed in the vehicles. In the result and the discussion section, which
the air will be passing in the several sections being done on the tunnel experiment. The terms
which are mostly used are drag reduction, vortex generator operations, flow separations, and
aerodynamic drags are the few key points of this experiment.
30

Figure 9: Airflow over the car
(Source: http://www.irjes.com/Papers/)
This picture will show where the pressure of the car is more and where the pressure of the car is
very less. The little red portion and the yellow portion of the car are sustaining more and more
pressure, and the other parts of the car have less pressure. The air will follow the ground path.
That ground path has more airflow. This airflow will be different. In the back portion, the flow of
air will be shown in the picture.
Figure 10: Velocity profile at the roof of a car without VG
(Source: http://www.irjes.com/Papers/)
31

This picture will show the car roof velocity profile without the presence of the vortex generator.
In point A, the upper operating of the airflow will be more, and the lower portion of the air will
be less. In the same way, all the other points will act, which is not providing the better output.
Figure 11: Flow around Vortex generator
(Source: http://www.irjes.com/Papers/)
This picture will denote that with VG, what will be the nature of the airflow.
4.3 Discussion of Findings
The entire process of creating the model is totally done in the software "Ansys cad". But before
the software application, some of the aspects were needed to be fulfilled, and those aspects are
the part of the drag, which are considered to be the mechanical forces (Arpinoet al., 2019). And
not only the definition of the drag is very crucial, but by which the forces are going to be
measured that it also needs to be discussed, all the equations are needed to be demonstrated. For
the purpose of calculating the force in the drag, the needed equation which is used is the
following.
Here in this equation, the Fd stands for the main force of the mechanical aspect, and also, it has
been considered to be the components which act according to the flow of the velocity in the
model of the vehicle, which is considered to act according to one particular direction only.
Other than that, ρ consists of the density of the mass which has been collected from the fluid of
the device, and the fluid is connected to the solid body(Bansal et al., 2021). Then there is u,
which is referred to as the flow in between velocity but from the object of the vehicle. And the A
is considered to be the area of the reference under the vehicle also the Cd is the unit for
32

calculating the coefficient of the drag where what happens is the structure of the object totally
resembles the coefficient with the drag, which is represented as dimensionless and the and both
of the factors are considered to be the skin-friction (Bardera et al. 2020). the entire equation of
the drag force totally depends on the methods by which the drag has been followed, and that
method is considered to be the analysis of
Figure 12: The created model under the Automotive aerodynamics
(Source: self-created in Ansys Cad)
The dimensions. Because the coefficient of the drag has been derived due to the fact of staying in
between the constant of the multiplicative, so what happens due to that is if any aspect of the
fluid is going to be fulfilled the needed properties in the object, then, the entire force which the
object has in them is totally being extracted by the drag force. In this operation, a lot of variables
are connected, which are the speed which is referred to as the unit u and the density of the fluid,
the area as well as the size of the main solid body, and the last but not the least drag-force. Here
the properties of the "Buckingham π" have been applied in which here the more than one can be
decreased and the and after the reduction, the resulting output would be the parameter which is
considered to be the parameters of the dimensionless. For calculating separately, the coefficient
of the drag is considered to be the following.
But also, the five parameters which have been discussed in earlier sections have also been getting
from operating a certain equation which is the
33

So here, the most vital unit which needs to be known is the Fb which refers to the function which
includes two different arguments (Bayındırlıet al. 2017). After discussing all the above equation,
the final equation which has been obtained by deriving that above equation is:
There are various types of drag force that exist, from where one is the pressure of the frontal and
the other one is the vacuum of the rear.
Figure 13: The act of force in the vehicle
(Source:
www.researchgate.net/publication/280237537_Effect_of_Vortex_Generators_on_a_Streamlined
_Sports_car)
4.3.1 Secondary Analysis
Here in this section after the creation of the model, the result has been demonstrated in this
section wherefrom the software of the Ansys Cad the variable is going to get which are consist of
the speed as well as the kinetic energy as well as the plots and the main target of establishing the
entire model in the Ansys cad is to get the mesh variable and to determine the quality of the
34

mesh (Berman et al. 2018). So, from the software, it has been noticed that various amounts of
speed have been captured from where some will be 20 m/s or 30 m, etc. As the output of the
result, the aspects which have been in the form of the graph are the turbulence energy, kinetic
energy, and the plots for the streamlines. So, from the software, the output which has been
received after the simulation is given below:
Figure 14: The RMS value of the vehicle
(Source: Self-created in the Ansys CFD)
In the case of the turbulence energy as well, the plotted graph has been gone from the software,
which is the
35

Figure 15: Turbulence factor of the vehicle
(Source: Ansys CFD )
The entire analysis of the vortex effect totally depends on some of the aspects, which are the
mesh, the geometry of the vehicle, solution, setup, and finally, the result. Where in the
geometrical aspects, it states that the entire simulation has been done by the three-dimensional
structure(Goić et al., 2021).
And in the case of the mesh, the geometric aspect is very vital to be researched because, without
the demonstration of the geometric model, the analysis of the mesh is going to be accomplished.
36

Figure 16: The final created model of the aerodynamics
(Source: Ansys CFD)
After defining the mesh of the vehicle to the geometric structure of the vehicle and the
turbulence energy, the final structure of the model has been successfully created in the software
"Ansys Cad".
4.4 Conclusion
It can be concluded that among a lot of software from where the entire simulation can be taken
place, but the software of Ansys Cad has been preferred more due to the fact that here the rate of
complicacies is not that which has been noticed in other software’s. Also, it also has been
concluded that by using a lot of methods and analysis, finally, the effects from the generator of
the vortex have been successfully removed. Here in the sections before the result of the software
the equation of the drag force has been discussed and how those force has been calculated by the
equation also has been discussed and the equations have been provided as well.
5.0 Conclusion
5.1 Introduction
Each car's success depends primarily on two factors: energy production capability and
aerodynamics. The best way to boost quality would be to increase its aerodynamics with the
37

energy steady for a particular car. Drag must be reduced to improve overall performance, another
of the flow behavior that prevents the output from achieving the end goal. Drag coefficients may
be mostly due to the isolation of a transition zone at the end of a vehicle (Zhu,et al. 2017). The
distinguishing thickness of the border layer gradually increases, which changes the external flow
and temperature potential. The technological development will help to analyze the final modal of
vehicle and make the evolution on systematic development and implementations. The
implementation will perform the aerodynamic sequences of the vehicle. Technological
development will help to make the proper connectivity and analyze the RMS values of the
vehicle. The process of making a good system will help to create the application on vehicle
modal, and it will help to analyze the potential value of the vortex generator. It will help to make
the proper analysis and build the applications of vehicle speed development. The process of
making systematic development needs proper engagement in the braking system. One easy way
to reduce drag's impact is to justify the vehicle's body's structure, as in a Number One or a long
beach race car. This sophisticated form would have minimal protection to the drive of the vehicle
and would thus be vulnerable to low drag. However, such sleek formed vehicles will be very
costly to produce and therefore have little industrial use. Balancing between income changes and
aerodynamic factors is crucial to the manufacture of an effective passenger car. The construction
of a vehicle system in racing makes significant evolutions for engaging the constructions to the
vehicle speed system. The construction of cars will bring an efficient way to making the
development in vehicle dynamic.
5.2 Linking with Objectives
The Fully understanding program was used to create a two-dimensional design for the passenger
vehicle in which current literature findings were evaluated. The Automotive properties at 25 mm
are improved by VGs mounted at the closed part of both the vehicle, VGs of 25 mm height.
Specifically, the Automotive function of the car front is found to increase. Here it is finished, and
nothing can be regarded as the optimal rear form configuration to protect the entire car Auto
particular sprint. For high traffic speed, VGs, though original, is suggested. The higher car
velocity concept is favored (Guerreiro,et al. 2019). The systematic development will help to
make the estimations, and it will perform the vortex generator, and sometimes it will make the
performances of the braking system. The development of the vehicle system will perform proper
38

mechanical work and maintain the connectivity of the vehicle design. The Vortex generator will
perform the configuration and evaluate the speed system in the vehicle. Since the 1920s and
1930s, the aerodynamics of cars have been investigated. But it has not been so strong in modern
years, particularly when the methods for testing have been used in various fields with effective
simulations like COMSOL and Ansys. Since examining the strengths of a car's performance, the
structure of the vehicle and its fuel efficiency is claimed to be the most critical aspect in
construction. The company's objective is to create a vehicle that can be assembled in bulk to
meet the maximum of the Torque. Investigators and planners took care of the form of the fore-
end, its body while designing an Automotive car.
The design will bring the systematic vehicle configuration to maintain the technological
development. Technological development will help to make the significance analysis to build the
car design through simulation modal (Ye, 2019). The simulation modal will help to make the
proper development and create the aerodynamic models of the vehicle. The vehicle modal will
help to design the analysis of speed control and making the design of the vortex generator.
5.3 Recommendations
Conducted measurements of overall strain, speed, and CFD have been tested as factors leading to
the impact of VGs. Following the check, it is verified that the VGs produce a wise vortex, that
the vortices combine the lowest and highest flow pattern and allow the process to move
downstream, thus limiting the isolation zone. It could thus expect that VGs raise automotive
tension from the whole rear side, thus reducing the friction, thus increasing the speed around the
rear diffuser and reducing the raise (Huo, 2021). The delta-shape VG is designed for this study
that has shown high efficiency. The design will help to make the analysis and build the design of
the care system, which will make the systematic development of designing the car and it will
produce the frictionless system to build the power management of the vehicle. The design will
help to build the construction and make an evaluation in the dynamic system.
5.4 Conclusions
In the automotive sector, vortex (VG) engines are used extensively, primarily for controlling
border movement layers and delaying flow displacements. A separate kind of VG can be used for
handling the flow across the car, primarily for engine power generation. In contradiction to the
39

VGs used for structures of aircraft, the VGs described are much larger than the specific boundary
layers and are not designed to regulate the transition between turbulent and laminar flows. But in
history, the influence of such VGs has been examined, not many of the velocity field
characteristics have been recorded.
40

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Appendix
Appendix 1: Design of a Custom Vortex generator
http://ijiset.com/vol2/v2s9/IJISET_V2_I9_26.pdf
Appendix 2: EFFECT OF VORTEX GENERATORS ON
DRAG OF A CAR
47

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
280237537_Effect_of_Vortex_Generators_on_a_Streamlined_Sports_car
48