ENG5001: Report on Water Shortage in Australia Reflection

This report provides a comprehensive reflection on the water shortage crisis in Australia. It begins with an introduction outlining the importance of water and the author's focus on analyzing the problem through the lens of engineering competencies and personal skills. The report then examines the climate of Australia, highlighting its arid nature, and presents statistics on water usage and availability. It explores the causes of water shortage, including increased human population, urbanization, industrialization, pollution, climate change, wastage, deforestation, and mismanagement of water resources. The impacts of water scarcity are discussed, followed by a detailed examination of potential solutions, such as education and awareness, pollution prevention, greywater usage, rainwater harvesting, conservation of water catchment areas, efficient systems, improved water supply systems, technology and R&D, and policy implementation. The report concludes by emphasizing the urgency of addressing the water shortage problem and the importance of implementing strategic measures to ensure sustainable water management in Australia.

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REFLECTION ON WATER SHORTAGE IN AUSTRALIA
Name
Course
Professor
University
City/state
Date

Reflection on Water Shortage in Australia 2
Table of Contents
1. Introduction.......................................................................................................................................3
2. Area of focus......................................................................................................................................3
3. Climate of Australia..........................................................................................................................4
4. Water shortage in Australia..............................................................................................................7
5. Causes of water shortage...................................................................................................................9
5.1. Increased human population.....................................................................................................9
5.2. Urbanization.............................................................................................................................10
5.3. Industrialization.......................................................................................................................11
5.4. Pollution...................................................................................................................................12
5.5. Climate change.........................................................................................................................13
5.6. Wastage....................................................................................................................................13
5.7. Deforestation............................................................................................................................14
5.8. Mismanagement of water resources.......................................................................................14
6. Water shortage impacts..................................................................................................................15
7. Solutions to water supply requirements.........................................................................................15
7.1. Education and awareness........................................................................................................16
7.2. Prevent pollution......................................................................................................................16
7.3. Use of greywater......................................................................................................................17
7.4. Rainwater harvesting..............................................................................................................17
7.5. Conserve water catchment areas............................................................................................17
7.6. Use of water efficient systems and practices..........................................................................18
7.7. Improve water supply systems................................................................................................18
7.8. Technology and research and development (R&D)..............................................................18
7.9. Policies......................................................................................................................................19
8. Conclusion........................................................................................................................................19
References................................................................................................................................................22

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1. Introduction
My focus in this assignment is on the assessment of personal and self-management skills in
relation to the context of the course – global change and water shortage impacts on engineering
activities between now and 2050. These skills are very essential in engineers’ day-to-day
activities because they enhance their actions and behaviour (Steyn & van Staden, 2018), and
ethical conduct and integrity. I will complete this assignment through reflection on various
achievements I have made so far in relation to engineering competencies, personal skills,
attributes, qualities and research effectiveness. My main goal in this assignment is to
demonstrate the application of engineering competencies and skills I have acquired so far in
analyzing and solving water shortage problem in the area of focus. I will analyze the water
shortage problem in Australia so as to demonstrate the importance of engineering competencies I
have learned and acquired so far in this course.
Water is a very essential natural resource for the existence of human beings, animals and
plants. The resource, which is a basic need, is so important that there cannot be life without
water. It is estimated that 71% of the earth’s surface is covered with water (Williams, 2014).
However, only about 3% of this water is freshwater (Global Environment Facility, 2015). This
has made inadequate supply of potable water to be a global problem that should be solved
through combination of engineering solutions and administrative solutions. Approximately one-
sixth of human population (over 1 billion people) worldwide lacks access to potable water and
over two million people die annually from waterborne diseases such as typhoid, cholera and
diarrhea. By 2025, it is projected that one-third of global human population will be facing
chronic and severe water shortages (World Water Council, (n.d.)). These are life-threatening
statistics and projections that should be taken with the seriousness they deserve.

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2. Area of focus
The interest focus I have selected for this paper is water supply in Australia. Australia is the
smallest continent on earth with an area of 7,741,220 km2 out of which 7,682,300 km2 is
occupied by land and 58,920km2 is occupied by water. This means that only 0.76% of Australia
is covered by water. The human population of Australia is approximately 25.1 million,
accounting for 0.33% of the world’s population of about 7.61 billion people. Based on these
statistics of total population, urban population and water coverage, it seems fascinating to
investigate water supply and water shortage in Australia. This investigation will provide useful
information that can be used to solve water shortage problem in Australia and other countries in
the world. Water supply is the delivery or provision of water by individuals, community
endeavors, commercial companies or public utilities to different consumers, such as households,
institutions, business premises, farms or industries. This paper focuses on provision or supply of
water by the public utilities. A typical water supply system comprises of a drainage basic, raw
water collection point, water purification or treatment facilities, water storage facilities, extra
water pressurizing components, distribution system comprising of a pipe network, and sewer
connections. These components can be categorized into: source of water supply, treatment or
processing of the water, and distribution, transportation or delivery of the water to end
consumers.
3. Climate of Australia
Based on Koppen-Geiger classification, the climate of Australia can be divided into six climate
zones: Aw climate, BSh climate, BWh climate, Cf climate, Cfb climate, Cfa climate and Csb
climate. Aw climate (savannah or tropical dry and wet climate) is experienced in the northern
coastal parts of Australia and is characterized by a hot tropical climate where temperatures

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exceed 18°C during all months, a dry winter and driest month receiving rainfall of less than 60
mm. BSh climate (hot semi-arid climate) is experienced in more inland areas and those areas that
are close to the west coast of Australia. These areas have a dryer subtropical climate with an
annual average temperature exceeding 18°C. BWh climate (hot desert climate) is experienced in
regions within central Australia. These regions are the driest and have an annual average
temperature exceeding 18°C. Cf climate is experienced in the southeastern coastal parts of
Australia whereas southern areas of the country have a cooler climate. Cfb climate (temperate
oceanic climate) is experienced in areas near Melbourne. Some of the characteristics of this
climate are as follows: warmest month has an average temperature of below 22°C, at least four
months have an average temperature of above 10°C, and the temperatures of the coldest month
ranges between -3°C and 18°C. The warmer Cfa climate (humid subtropical climate) is
experienced in areas around Brisbane. The warmest month of this climate has an average
temperature of 22°C. Csb climate (warm-summer Mediterranean climate) is experienced in
southwest coast of Australia. This climate is characterized by a dry summer, average temperature
of the warmest month is below 22°C, the temperature of coldest month ranges between -3°C and
18°C and at least four months have average temperature of over 10°C (WeatherOnline, 2019).
Figure 1 below shows the climate zones of Australia. The climate of the country is
largely arid, which is classified as semi-desert or desert, except in the country’s extreme north
area where the climate is tropical (the region experiences a dry and rainy season) and also on the
country’s southern coast areas where the climate is more temperature, Mediterranean or oceanic.

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Figure 1: Climate zones of Australia (Go Study Australia Pty Ltd, 2019)
As presented in Figure 2 below, Australia receives less precipitation.
Figure 2: Precipitation of Australia (Climatestotravel.com, 2019)

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Tropical climate is non-arid climate with all twelve months having mean temperatures of
above 18°C. Subtropical climate is cool-mild winters and hot-humid summers with evenly
distributed precipitation and relatively high temperatures throughout the year. Dry Mediterranean
climate – cool-mild winters and dry hot/warm summers with winter temperatures ranging from
30-65°C and average summer temperature of 50°C. Desert climate – hot dry climate with winter
temperatures ranging between 20-30° and summer temperatures ranging between 35-40°C and
annual rainfall of below 250 mm. Temperate climate is climate with average annual
temperatures.
4. Water shortage in Australia
Australia is the driest inhabited continent on earth with approximately 70% of the land being
arid. Despite this, Australia is one of the countries with the highest per capita water use in the
world. The amount of rainwater flowing into Australian rivers is very low – only 12% on
average, compared to 52% and 39% in North America and Europe, respectively (McCormick,
2011). The per capita water use in Australia ranges between 100 liters and 900 liters per day,
with the average daily per capita water use being 340 liters. But considering all other uses,
including non-domestic water uses, Australia uses about 25 teralitres (TL) of water every year.
Out of this, approximately 20 TL of water is sourced from surface water while the remaining 5
TL is sourced from groundwater. The top water uses in Australia are agriculture, household,
manufacturing, mining, electricity & gas production, and factory & fishing. Considering the
rapidly increasing population, urbanization, industrialization and climate change, the Australian
annual water use in 2050 can be estimated as follows:

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A=B ( 1+ r
100 )
r
; Where A = estimated water use in 2050, B = estimated current water use, r =
estimated annual rate of increase in water use, and t = number of years from 2019 to 2050
Let r be 2%
A=25 TL (1+ 2
100 )31
=46.2TL
Therefore it is projected that Australia’s annual water use in 2050 will be 46.2 TL. Figure 3 and
4 below shows Annual mean rainfall of Australia from 1900 to 2018 and monthly mean rainfall
for Australia, respectively.
Figure 3: Annual mean rainfall for Australia 1900-2018 (Australian Bureau of Meteorology,
2019)

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Figure 4: Monthly mean rainfall for Australia (Australian Bureau of Meteorology, 2019)
Based on the graphs in Figure 3 and 4 above, Australia receives less rainfall hence water
availability and supply in the country is limited. From the ongoing population growth, human
and development activities and climate change, water supply and storage for most cities will
continue dropping thus escalating water crisis in the country (Bureau of Meteorology, 2019);
(Green Planet Plumbing, 2015). Therefore water shortage or crisis in Australia will be worse
than it is today unless strategic measures are deliberately taken as soon as possible to reverse the
situation.
5. Causes of water shortage
Water scarcity is basically an imbalance between water supply and water demand. It occurs
when water demand is greater than water supply. This is a very common and serious problem in
many parts of the world today (Australia included) and it is projected to worsen if appropriate

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measures are not put in place to reverse the situation. Below are some of the causes of water
shortage in Australia.
5.1. Increased human population
Human population has more than doubled over the last five decades. This rapid growth of
human population has put a lot of stress on water resources. It is also important to note that the
effect of human population on water shortage is not just based on the number of humans and
how they use water individually but also the increased industrialization and economic
development that accompanies rapid human population growth. For example, as human
population increases, more pressure is also put on available freshwater via production of energy
and other commodities that people need such as food, clothes, buildings and roads, among
others. In addition to overexploitation or depletion of available water, increased human
population has also changed water ecosystems across the world and led to huge loss of
biodiversity (Kummu, et al., 2016). Many river basins today have been encroached by humans,
resulting to a decrease in the volume of water available for human consumption.
5.2. Urbanization
Increased urbanization is another major cause of water shortage in Australia that cannot be
overemphasized (Wright, 2017). Global urban population has been increasing rapidly over the
past decades and this is putting a lot of pressure on water supply in urban areas. In 1950,
approximately 30% of global population was living in cities. It is estimated that by 2050, this
population will have increased to nearly 70% (TheWaterGeeks.com, 2019). There are millions of
people migrating from rural areas or other parts of the world to major Australian cities. This has
resulted to rapid increase of population and overall growth of Australian cities. As of 2019,
approximately 90.1% of Australian population is urban (Worldometers, 2019), which shows the

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large magnitude of urbanization on water shortage in the country. The estimated urban
population of Australia’s largest cities is as follows: Sydney – 5.23 million Melbourne – 4.94
million, Brisbane – 2.46 million, Perth – 2.06 million, Adelaide – 1.35 million, Gold Coast –
679,127, Newcastle – 486,704, Canberra – 457,563, Sunshine Coast – 333,436 and Wollongong
– 302,739. By 2050, it is estimated that the population of Australia will be approximately 37.5
million people (as shown in Figure 5 below), out of which 35.4 million people (94.4%) will be
urban population.
Figure 5: Australian population projections (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2018)
As cities continue to grow, they consume a lot of water. With time, available water
resources get depleted or inadequate to meet the rapidly increasing water demand, which results
to water shortage. Another factor that leads to water shortage in cities is overreliance on limited
water sources. Most cities have one or two water sources – usually dams or oceans. Rarely do
people in cities fetch water directly from water bodies such as rivers, streams, lakes, etc. This is

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due to lack of these water bodies within a reasonable distance or contamination of the available
water bodies by the city residents themselves or development activities taking place in these
cities. The only option that remains is to rely on municipal water supply, which usually lacks the
capacity to meet the high water demand of increasing urban population.
5.3. Industrialization
Industrialization refers to wide scale development of industries. Australia is a country that is
less dependent on agricultural production and more dependent on the manufacturing of goods.
This manufacturing of goods, which is known as industrialization, is done by assembly lines and
mechanized mass production. Australia is an industrialized country considering that
manufacturing sector contributes about 6% of the country’s GDP (Lang'at, 2018). This shows
that there are numerous manufacturing activities in the country. There are two main ways in
which industrialization contributes to water shortage. First and foremost, industrialization
processes require or consume a lot of water. The water is used in running large and water
intensive machines in factories and industries, cleaning these machines and by the workers in
these factories or industries (Khoso, et al., 2015). A substantial percentage of this water is also
wastage through misuse/overuse and leakages. These two causes water shortage due to overuse
and wastage. The second way in which industrialization causes water shortage is through
pollution of water and air. In most cases, toxic industrial wastes get deposited in water bodies
(Inyinbor, et al., 2018), making it unfit for human consumption and resulting to water shortage
(Pullanikkatil & Urama, 2011). The industries or factories also emit large volumes of greenhouse
gases into the atmosphere that contribute to global warming and climate change (Ebenstein,
2012), which contributes to water shortage (Mgbemene, et al., 2016).