Journal of Diabetes Research
Added on 2022-08-24
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Running head: ESSAY
The association between illness and stress
Name of the Student
Name of the University
Author Note
The association between illness and stress
Name of the Student
Name of the University
Author Note
ESSAY1
Introduction- In psychology, the term stress refers to the feeling of pressure and
strain. Also defined as psychological pain, small amounts of stress are generally considered
beneficial for the entire body. According to Janis (2016) under circumstances when the
external stimulus becomes large, internal collapse becomes unavoidable. Time and again it
has been established that maintenance of life is crucially reliant on maintaining a constant
state of the internal milieu in the face of an altering setting, which is commonly referred to as
“homeostasis” (Khonsary, 2017). The definite or apparent hazard to any organism is known
as “stressor” and the response to these particular stressors are referred to as “stress response”
(Pakos‐Zebrucka et al., 2016). Despite the fact that stress responses have gradually evolved
as adaptive procedures, it has often been postulated that prolonged and severe stress
responses often results in disease and tissue damage. This essay will elaborate on the extent
to which illnesses are influenced by exposure of people to stress.
Discussion- According to Pakos‐Zebrucka et al. (2016) stress encompasses non-
specific response and often acts as the consequence of somatic or mental demand on the
body. The association between illness and stress is multifaceted. Any circumstance that
results in the onset of illness in an individual might not trigger illness in other individual.
Amid all the factors that make a person more susceptible to stress, the most common are
coping mechanism, genetic vulnerability, personality types and social support (Lee &
Goldstein, 2016) Upon encountering a particular problem, people generally take efforts to
determine the gravity and significance of the problem, following which they evaluate whether
or not adequate resources that are imperative to cope with the issues are present.
According to Farrell and Simpson (2017) after the perception of a severe stressful
occasion, there occurs a cascade of vicissitudes in the different physiological systems namely
the cardiovascular, endocrine, nervous, and immune systems of the human body. The
aforementioned changes generally comprise of the stress response and are normally adaptive
Introduction- In psychology, the term stress refers to the feeling of pressure and
strain. Also defined as psychological pain, small amounts of stress are generally considered
beneficial for the entire body. According to Janis (2016) under circumstances when the
external stimulus becomes large, internal collapse becomes unavoidable. Time and again it
has been established that maintenance of life is crucially reliant on maintaining a constant
state of the internal milieu in the face of an altering setting, which is commonly referred to as
“homeostasis” (Khonsary, 2017). The definite or apparent hazard to any organism is known
as “stressor” and the response to these particular stressors are referred to as “stress response”
(Pakos‐Zebrucka et al., 2016). Despite the fact that stress responses have gradually evolved
as adaptive procedures, it has often been postulated that prolonged and severe stress
responses often results in disease and tissue damage. This essay will elaborate on the extent
to which illnesses are influenced by exposure of people to stress.
Discussion- According to Pakos‐Zebrucka et al. (2016) stress encompasses non-
specific response and often acts as the consequence of somatic or mental demand on the
body. The association between illness and stress is multifaceted. Any circumstance that
results in the onset of illness in an individual might not trigger illness in other individual.
Amid all the factors that make a person more susceptible to stress, the most common are
coping mechanism, genetic vulnerability, personality types and social support (Lee &
Goldstein, 2016) Upon encountering a particular problem, people generally take efforts to
determine the gravity and significance of the problem, following which they evaluate whether
or not adequate resources that are imperative to cope with the issues are present.
According to Farrell and Simpson (2017) after the perception of a severe stressful
occasion, there occurs a cascade of vicissitudes in the different physiological systems namely
the cardiovascular, endocrine, nervous, and immune systems of the human body. The
aforementioned changes generally comprise of the stress response and are normally adaptive
ESSAY2
in nature. Two striking features have often been found to increase the adaptive nature of the
stress response. Firstly, the events trigger the release of numerous stress hormones that
increase the availability of the energy stores of the human body for instantaneous use (Dinse
et al., 2017). Cortisol is the stress hormone that is generally produced from the zona
fasciculata of the adrenal cortex (Khonsary, 2017). Researchers have stated that an increase
in the amount of cortisol circulating in the blood stream results in an allosteric load that
eventually trigger several physiological changes in the body (Yaghoubi et al., 2020).
Secondly, stress also leads to the evolution of a novel pattern of energy dissemination.
Energy generally gets transferred to the cells and tissues that get activated at the time of
stress, predominantly the brain and the skeletal muscles. Additionally, stress response also
results in an activation of the immune system cells that eventually travel to the ‘battle
stations’ (López-Olmeda et al., 2019). Not only does stress response suspend several
metabolic activities that are namely, food digestion and synthesis of gonadal and growth
hormones, but also acts detrimental to survival and physical integrity.
According to Nagaraja et al. (2016) the stress hormones are predominantly produced
by the sympathetic nervous system, together with the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenocortical
axis. The sympathetic nervous system brings about a stimulation of the adrenal medulla,
located in the adrenal glands that influence the production and release of epinephrine, which
belongs to the category of catecholamine. Simultaneously, corticotrophin releasing factor gets
produced from the hypothalamus due to action of the paraventricular nucleus, thereby
stimulating the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropin. This directly governs the
release of cortisol, which together with catecholamine increase the available energy sources
by promoting gluconeogenesis and lipolysis (Carroll et al., 2019).
in nature. Two striking features have often been found to increase the adaptive nature of the
stress response. Firstly, the events trigger the release of numerous stress hormones that
increase the availability of the energy stores of the human body for instantaneous use (Dinse
et al., 2017). Cortisol is the stress hormone that is generally produced from the zona
fasciculata of the adrenal cortex (Khonsary, 2017). Researchers have stated that an increase
in the amount of cortisol circulating in the blood stream results in an allosteric load that
eventually trigger several physiological changes in the body (Yaghoubi et al., 2020).
Secondly, stress also leads to the evolution of a novel pattern of energy dissemination.
Energy generally gets transferred to the cells and tissues that get activated at the time of
stress, predominantly the brain and the skeletal muscles. Additionally, stress response also
results in an activation of the immune system cells that eventually travel to the ‘battle
stations’ (López-Olmeda et al., 2019). Not only does stress response suspend several
metabolic activities that are namely, food digestion and synthesis of gonadal and growth
hormones, but also acts detrimental to survival and physical integrity.
According to Nagaraja et al. (2016) the stress hormones are predominantly produced
by the sympathetic nervous system, together with the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenocortical
axis. The sympathetic nervous system brings about a stimulation of the adrenal medulla,
located in the adrenal glands that influence the production and release of epinephrine, which
belongs to the category of catecholamine. Simultaneously, corticotrophin releasing factor gets
produced from the hypothalamus due to action of the paraventricular nucleus, thereby
stimulating the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropin. This directly governs the
release of cortisol, which together with catecholamine increase the available energy sources
by promoting gluconeogenesis and lipolysis (Carroll et al., 2019).
ESSAY3
Apart from resulting in high cholesterol level, stress also decrease the amount of sex
steroids, both of which are found to antagonise the functions of insulin hormone. Insulin is
predominantly responsible to keeping a check on blood glucose levels. At the same time,
there might occur an increase in girth or visceral adiposity of the person, which also
contributes to insulin resistance. Under circumstances when the levels of cortisol,
noradrenaline and adrenaline are persistently elevated in an individual who is continuously
subjected to stress, the person might get predisposed to diabetes mellitus, the chronic
metabolic syndrome (Joseph & Golden, 2017). The effect of psychological stress on diabetes
mellitus is clear and depends on a range of psychosocial factors. One major psychosocial
factor is social advocacy, and research evidences have reported that this support generally
offers a buffering effect during stressful circumstances (Shao et al., 2017). Findings from
recent studies have also elucidated that people suffering from type 2 diabetes when offered
psychological intervention or behavioural diabetes education demonstrate improvements in
psychological distress and glycaemic control, thus effectively managing the illness
(Mahdiyah, Wahid & Juniana, 2017).
Stress has also been associated with hypertension and cardiovascular abnormalities.
Stress results in an increase in blood pressure via two different hemodynamic mechanisms.
Blood pressure gets increased through the myocardial mechanism that directly brings about
an enhancement in the cardiac output, thereby increasing the amount of blood that gets
pumped during each heartbeat, commonly referred to as stroke volume, together with the
heart rate. According to Albert et al. (2017) an increase in the level of circulating stress
hormone triggers the heart to beat at a faster rate, thereby stimulating narrowing of the blood
vessels. This is generally referred to as the vascular mechanism that effectively constricts the
vasculature, thus increasing the blood pressure. Particular stressors tend to provoke either
vascular or myocardial responses in the human body, hence offering an indication of
Apart from resulting in high cholesterol level, stress also decrease the amount of sex
steroids, both of which are found to antagonise the functions of insulin hormone. Insulin is
predominantly responsible to keeping a check on blood glucose levels. At the same time,
there might occur an increase in girth or visceral adiposity of the person, which also
contributes to insulin resistance. Under circumstances when the levels of cortisol,
noradrenaline and adrenaline are persistently elevated in an individual who is continuously
subjected to stress, the person might get predisposed to diabetes mellitus, the chronic
metabolic syndrome (Joseph & Golden, 2017). The effect of psychological stress on diabetes
mellitus is clear and depends on a range of psychosocial factors. One major psychosocial
factor is social advocacy, and research evidences have reported that this support generally
offers a buffering effect during stressful circumstances (Shao et al., 2017). Findings from
recent studies have also elucidated that people suffering from type 2 diabetes when offered
psychological intervention or behavioural diabetes education demonstrate improvements in
psychological distress and glycaemic control, thus effectively managing the illness
(Mahdiyah, Wahid & Juniana, 2017).
Stress has also been associated with hypertension and cardiovascular abnormalities.
Stress results in an increase in blood pressure via two different hemodynamic mechanisms.
Blood pressure gets increased through the myocardial mechanism that directly brings about
an enhancement in the cardiac output, thereby increasing the amount of blood that gets
pumped during each heartbeat, commonly referred to as stroke volume, together with the
heart rate. According to Albert et al. (2017) an increase in the level of circulating stress
hormone triggers the heart to beat at a faster rate, thereby stimulating narrowing of the blood
vessels. This is generally referred to as the vascular mechanism that effectively constricts the
vasculature, thus increasing the blood pressure. Particular stressors tend to provoke either
vascular or myocardial responses in the human body, hence offering an indication of
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