Age-based Recall Pattern Analysis for Semantic and Non-Semantic Tasks

This study explores the impact of age on the depth of processing information and recall in semantic and non-semantic tasks. The research was conducted on older and younger age groups using descriptive and multivariate analysis techniques. The study found that age is a significant factor in the ability to process information deeply and recall it. Gender was found to be insignificant. The study used five familiarized assignments and a control condition. The study is relevant to psychology and cognitive skills.

Running head: AGE-BASED RECALL PATTERN ANALYSIS 1
Age-based Recall Pattern Analysis for Semantic and Non-Semantic Tasks
Name:
Institution:

AGE-BASED RECALL PATTERN ANALYSIS 2
Abstract
Information decoding by in-depth exploration always has been a challenge to cognitive skills,
irrespective of biological age, for human beings. Although,the impact of efficient memory and
capability of learning, are the two major components for depth of processing information.
Comprehension of the molecular splitting of cognitive skills and their inter-correlations has been
explored in the present study. The exploration was executed by performance analysis of older
and younger age groups in semantic and non-semantic tasks. Both age groups performed 5
familiarized assignments where one particular assignment was under the control condition. The
research work was accomplished using the descriptive as well as multivariate analysis
techniques. Age was found to be the imperative factor for the depleted ability for the profundity
of processing the information. Gender of the participants was discovered to be an insignificant
aspect of the present psychoanalysis. Consequently, the research was oriented around the
influence of age difference on information recall.

AGE-BASED RECALL PATTERN ANALYSIS 3
Introduction
Cognitive learning from proficiency and skillfulness has been thoroughly discussed and
analyzed by various psychologists. The deficit in attention and depth of information processing
has been identified as the key factors in incidental learning (van der Stel&Veenman, 2008).
Earlier research, during the 6th decade of the 19thcentury, witnessed micro level psychoanalysis of
cognitive processes.
Implication and Backdrop of the Research
Craik and Lockhart in 1972 approached the research in cognitive skills in a more holistic
way. They scrutinized the cognitive deficits as individual components instead of combining the
function of attention and short-term memory (Craik & Lockhart, 1972). Insufficiency of the
depth of information processing and lacuna in attentive memory was discovered as the two
primary consequences of age decrement of human memory. The indoctrination of information
coding and reverse coding process was considered to be analogous in the scale of cognitive
difficulty. The situation or task orienting performance of recalling informative facts was
observed to be dependent on age decrement in a negative manner. Particularly, older subjects
were unable to perform considerably in secondary memory tasks, where the division of attention
and short-term memory were used in processing semantic jobs. Hyde and Jenkins in 1973
unearthed an experimental way to expose the age decrement effect on cognitive task
performance. The researchers caught the participants unprepared for memory tests. The
participants’ anticipatory factor of the laboratory examination plan was removed by means of the
swift approach. The predicament of the inattentive approach of the participants and thus effective
of rapid approach technique were the paradigms for the incidental memory. Semantic and

AGE-BASED RECALL PATTERN ANALYSIS 4
syntactic tasks were performed by the respondents, where semantic tasks yielded improvised
recall from the subjects. Improvised and extensive structured recall of words and semantic
information was observed since the participants were barred from orienting tasks. The outcome
highlighted the disparity insemantic and non- semantic recalling of the subjects. The effect of
pre-knowledge on the recall paradigm of the experimental setup was found to be relatively
constant with that of the absence of knowledge of the experiments (Salthouse, 2016).
Christian Fullgrabe et al. in 2015 experimented for auditory processing and cognitive
control by speech identification with two different age groups. Participants were either 60 years
or older or between 18 to 29 years. The auditory experiment indicated the consequence of cohort
effects where no significant difference was identified. The researchers confirmed the test results
by matrix reasoning and block design experimentations. In 2011, Alan Gow et al. examined the
stability in intelligence referenced to the age bracket of 11 years to 70 years. The cognitive
capability related to age maturity of the participants as well as effect of previous cognitive
proficiency was analyzed. In the cohort study, the age transitional cognitive capabilities were
examined. Intelligence efficiency and better mental processing were two primary aspects of
young minds in the age bracket of 11 years.
The research scholar in the current psychology research has attempted to bridge the
hypotheses with semantic as well as non-semantic tasks. The attempt has been made to identify
the distinction and development in attentive skills in humans from childhood all the way through
adulthood (Danckert& Craik, 2013). The aim of the present research was to identify the age
influence on depth of processing of information and effects on recalling.

AGE-BASED RECALL PATTERN ANALYSIS 5
Hypothesis
The research was performed by hypothesizing the primary goal which was described as
follows, biological age of human does not affect the in-depth processing of information and
recalling of previous facts.
Variables
Gender and age group of the participants were the two independent factors.No of recalls
in five orientation tasks was the dependent factor of the study. Gender of the subjects was found
to be an insignificant factor in comparative analysis and hence excluded from variable listing.
The recall tasks were also the deciding factors in the research work.
Method
The study was framed with five special and memory cognition orienting tasks.
Additionally, a control examination setup among the five tasks was also provided. The
participants recalled as many words as they learned them; the task was repetitive in nature. The
experiment involved 10 groups of participants with equal number of male and females in each
group. The experiment design was a 5 X 2 (orientation tasks X age groups) factorial analysis.
The scholar acknowledged the inelegance method involved in random formation of the groups
(Eysenck, 1974).
Participants
Potential participants or subjects were engaged from the Psychology department of the
University. The target age groups were divided into young and old subcategories. The
advertisement was placed in the University public spaces (e.g., notice boards) and psychology

AGE-BASED RECALL PATTERN ANALYSIS 6
students, as well as professors, were invited for the research. The encouraged and interested
participants were segregated in age group of 18 years to 30 years and 60 years to 85 years with
50 members in each age bracket. The mean age of the young age group was 23.78 years (SD =
3.73 years, Range = 18 – 29 years) and that of the old age group was 74.76 years (SD = 6.77
years, Range = 63 – 85 years). All the participants took part in the “Mill Hill Vocabulary Scale”.
All of them performed exceptionally well, which indicated the efficiency of the subjects. The
average years of education for younger age group was 13.72 years (SD = 0.88 years, Range = 13
– 15 years) and that of the old age group was 13.68 years (SD = 0.84 years, Range = 13 – 15
years). Gender wise, 56 females were recruited with mean age of 49.64 years (SD = 26.22 years,
Range = 18 – 85 years) and 44 males were enlisted with mean age of 48.80 years (SD = 26.44
years, Range = 18 – 85 years).
Independent and Dependent Variables
The independent factor between the gatherings was taken as age groups of the
participants while sex was dismissed due to insignificant effect on the cognitive abilities, for the
purpose of the investigation. The number of successful recalls in five orienting and distinct kinds
of tasks wasconsidered as the dependent factors.
Ethics
The researcher with the end goal of this investigation received ethical approval. The
researcher has acquired authorization from University Ethics committee, preceding leading the
investigation. The researcher acquired 2017/123 as ethics number from ethical board of trustees.
The target of the examination and all other important subtle elements were talked about. The
researcher did not unveil any individual subtle elements like address, name, contacts of interest

AGE-BASED RECALL PATTERN ANALYSIS 7
or some other points of interest in the investigation, consequently keeping up the classification
understanding.
Materials
With a specific end goal to lead the investigation, nine classifications of standards were
obliged by a 27-word rundown of three high-predominance individuals. The experiment
vocabulary words were selected from English dictionary. They were one syllable words and two
different words rhyming with other words were utilized. Be that as it may, inside the rundown
none of the words rhymed with each other, with the rundown being organized in irregular way,
aside from progressive models inside a class, which were isolated by at least three mediating
words from independent classifications. For lucidity of data and featuring the same, words were
imprinted in capital letters of 2.5 centimeters high on independent cards estimating 10 X 20
centimeters.The investigation made utilization of five situating assignments which were self-
managed and given to singular members for reacting.
Five Orienting tasks
Letter Counting
The members were requested to lead checking and afterward recording number of letters
of words all through the pack of cards. In the second round through the pack of cards, members
were made to record post checking the quantity of consonants show in each word. Last time,
members needed to tally and after that record number of letters of words before the letter M in
the words.

AGE-BASED RECALL PATTERN ANALYSIS 8
Rhyming
In this errand, members needed to figure a word that rhymed with another word in the
rundown. At that point, they needed to state out the rhyming words out loud. As they were very
nearly finishing pack of cards, they were made to experience the pack again and conceptualize
another rhyming word for each word. Members could experience the pack for some other time
foroccurrence of accessibility of time in the event that they could think about another rhyming
word for words gave.
Imagery
In these undertaking members needed to build up a picture of words exhibit in the
rundown. Every one of the pictures must be then apprised on a 5-guide scale from 1 toward 5,
where 1 inferred no picture and 5 was delineation of clear and distinctive ordinary vision.
Endless supply of the pack needed to rate again with respect to unmistakable quality of the
picture. Members were asked to rerate pictures again in the event that time allowed (Guo et al.,
2008).
Adjective
In this, undertaking members needed to distinguish an adjusting descriptor from the
rundown of words and say it uproarious. In this undertaking too, members needed to experience
the pack for the second time for conceptualizing an alternate modifier for adjusting descriptor
inside word list. In this undertaking additionally, members needed to experience the pack again
for another modifier on the off chance that time was there.
Control (Intentional)

AGE-BASED RECALL PATTERN ANALYSIS 9
Participants needed to work methodically through the pack for learning the same number
of words they could. In this assignment additionally members needed to experience the pack for
second and third time in the event that time was there.
Modus Operandi
The trial took after by the method that was instruction specific, which was preceding the
directing from the scholar. In the different assignments that was directed all through the trial,
every member chose were tried exclusively. Members were encouraged to progressively advance
on the undertaking, yet would need to proceed onward to the following one. It would just occur
in the event that member spent over 10 seconds in a specific undertaking. Every member was
offered cards to work at his own rate. In all totality of conditions investigated, members had
experienced 150 seconds for leading the undertaking or while working through the pack.
Keeping in mind the end goal to compose with the expectation of complimentary review,
members were given 10 minutes post-evacuation of rundown. Members toward the end were met
in regards to whether they could comprehend in the event that they would be required to review
Results
A Priori Sample Size from G*Power software was utilized for the examination in regards to the
example estimate with 5 groupings comprising of 20 subjects (10 young and 10 old participants)
each. Utilizing Cohen's-d effect size of the sample was computed as 0.5, where the power was
taken as 0.8. The effect measure resolved taking 5 within the group samples. The F-test
alongside the graphical plot was conducted, and the graphs of F critical (2.58, df = 4) sustained
the for the present examination. ANOVA was constructed utilizing the estimation of the

AGE-BASED RECALL PATTERN ANALYSIS 10
Cohen's d as 0.5, and it was apparent that for our analysis the sample size was more than
required. The appropriate sample size from the G-Power platform was evaluated as 54
participants.
Normality
Normality of the given information was verified, the female subjects comprehensive of
both age clusters were found to be almost symmetrical with a flat peak. The yielded measures of
skewness = 0.08 (SE = 0.32) and kurtosis = - 1.88 (SE = 0.63) indicated the shape of the
distribution. The male subjects comprehensive of both age clusters were found to be almost
symmetrical with a flat peak. The male subjects yielded skewness = 0.05(SE = 0.36) and kurtosis
= - 1.94 (SE = 0.70) for their age. Shapiro-Wilk test certified the normality of the femaleswith
test statistic = 0.80 (p < 0.05) and for males the test statistic = 0.79 (p< 0.05) under 5% level of
significance. The box plot of the age distribution was geometrical evidence of the claims.

AGE-BASED RECALL PATTERN ANALYSIS 11
FIGURE 1: DISTRIBUTION OF MALE AGE
FIGURE 2:
DISTRIBUTION OF
FEMALE AGE
Gender Independence
Gender based
recall scores were
compared and the
difference was utilized
for establishing the fact
that sexual orientation
did not vary altogether based on number of reviews. The computed independent t-test (t = 0.57, p

AGE-BASED RECALL PATTERN ANALYSIS 12
= 0.57) acknowledged that the speculation of independence of recall scores on both sex
assemble, regardless of age amass, which were relatively comparative in semantic or non-
semantic review design. So, sex was not a decisive factor in the fundamental examination of the
research sequence.
Descriptive Statistics
The average words recalled for five sorts of tasksfor the non semanticand semantic tasks
arranged by variety as for the age congregation of the subjects has been provided in the figure 3.
Average recalls for control, adjective task, and imagery work had more noteworthy mean
qualities than the rhyming and letter counting for the two age group subjects. The discernible
distinction of the numerical estimations of the methods for semantic fields was obvious in nature.
The facts of the previous research works were supported by the fact that older age group subjects
were lagging behind young subjects in semantic fields but not otherwise. The p-values and
additionally the length of the confidence interval for rhyming were likewise demonstrative of the
way that both ages were relatively equivalent in proficiency.

AGE-BASED RECALL PATTERN ANALYSIS 13
FIGURE 3:AVERAGE NUMBER OF RECALLS FOR TASKS
Interval Estimation Approach
The older group of subjects was found to be lagging in of semantic reviewing compared
to the young subjects. The conclusions were upheld by the confidence intervals from
examination of fluctuation of age group with five sorts of evaluation. For rhyming and letter
counting the confidence intervals were quite close when two age groups were compared,
consequently presuming that no impact of age group was on non-semantic assessment. While in
circumstances of adjective words, and imageryconfidence interval of young age groups were in
much higher range compared to the old subjects. So,aninference was drawn that if there should
arise an occurrence of semantic review nullhypothesishad to be rejected (Webb, Newton &
Chang, 2013).

AGE-BASED RECALL PATTERN ANALYSIS 14
FIGURE 4: INTERVAL ESTIMATION OF AGE WITH RECALL TYPE
ANOVA for Number of Recalls
The analysis of variance for the recalls was conducted by organizing recall design and
Age groups in 5 X 2 designs (Reed, Chan & Mikels, 2014). A statistically significant difference
of recall patterns (F = 47.58, p <.05) and effect of two age amass with number of recalls (F=
5.98, p<.05) were found. The recall outline was comparable for non-semantic design for both age
brackets while semantic works were better performed by young group. Consequently, based on
the evidences of ANOVA, the null hypothesis was invalided under 5% level of significance and
it was concluded that age does have impact on recalling of information (Post & Bondell, 2013).
Associative Clustering
Associative clustering was administered as the percentage cluster of the recalling tasks.
Analysis of variance revealed no significant difference in letter counting (F = 1.29, p = 0.27)

AGE-BASED RECALL PATTERN ANALYSIS 15
between the age groups. The other four tasks were found to be significantly different when two
age groups were compared. The detailed calculations have been provided in figure 5.
FIGURE 5: CLUSTERING ANALYSIS
Discussion
The sample size of the experiment was adequate in nature, and because of the huge effect
size (ES = 0.5) chosen in the current research, the results of the comparative study were
considerably acceptable. The power analysis estimated an effective sample size of 54, which
compared to the study sample size of 100, was comparatively small. The medium effect size of
0.35 (Cohen’s-d) yielded an estimated sample size of 103, which was almost equal to the current
sample size of 100 participants (Figure 5 in Appendix A). Hence, the a priori estimate was
sufficient evidence to conclude that the effect of the current sample size was intermediate in
nature, and might have caused increased cost in conducting the experiment. From the G-plot the
maximum effective sample size with 0.95 power of the test was observed as 80, which was less
than the current sample size.
The aftereffects of the test were profoundly promising because of the way that they took
after with past information of the subject, however some way or another under various fields of

AGE-BASED RECALL PATTERN ANALYSIS 16
study and conditions (Gegenfurtner & Vauras, 2012). The semantic undertakings created
profoundly huge information contrasted with the non-semantic occupations. The investigation
was parted into 5 bunches with 2 subjects in them, which helped in dissecting the execution of
both subject gatherings in all fields. The youthful subject congregation found the semantic
occupations more engaging than more seasoned ones; however mean scores were better in extent
for both the subject gatherings for last three classes of undertakings. The control undertaking was
the most adequately performed classification for youthful and old subjects. This demonstrates for
ordered assignments old subjects likewise can utilize their profundity of examination and
execution level of execution was raised. The youthful were ahead in mean scores and length of
C.I likewise high.
The two subjects showed relatively same measure of productivity while performing letter
checking, rhyming assignments. In any case, the youthful subjects were more proficient in
control errand. This outcome implies the application level of both subject gatherings while
performing inside and out examination (Hyde & Jenkins, 1973). The bunching of information
uncovered that age aggregate distinction was havingirrelevant impact in non-semantic errands.
The control undertaking bunching totally uncovered the more seasoned subjects yet that could be
because of disassociation of thing insightful acknowledgment (Arciuli& Simpson, 2011).
As the pros and cons of the examination,the requirement of the facilitate investigation
considering the technique fields of subjectswas identified. Independent of age subjects could
play out the reviewing of assignments (Lee & Fortune, 2013). The assignments required more
fields of classification in each area. This sort of cross referencing examination ought to likewise
be directed on tedious time subordinate information (Stein, Leventhal &Trabasso, 2013). On the
off chance, that the subjects were met with earlier learning of the test data then this investigation

AGE-BASED RECALL PATTERN ANALYSIS 17
could have indicated more conclusive outcomes. In the business, execution of various
undertakings is by and large finished with earlier learning. Thus, for indisputable choice more
basic examination alongside complex informational index was required. The nonattendance of
thing astute word rundown could likewise have yielded exceptionally critical information in
semantic undertakings. The private idea of the review test, however, saved the fair-minded
nature of information gathering for the examination (Light, 2012).
At long last, this cross-referencing investigation was performed with an aim to declassify
the age decrement effect on recalling ability and was a sign to the way that age contrasts must be
isolated based on low level of uncategorized assignments (Biss et al., 2013). The restriction of
the trial information and rejection of the sexual orientation field from examining created an
uncertain however fair outcome.

AGE-BASED RECALL PATTERN ANALYSIS 18
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AGE-BASED RECALL PATTERN ANALYSIS 20
Appendix A
FIGURE 2: G- POWER F-CURVE
Power (1-β err prob)
Total sample size
F tests - ANOVA: Fixed effects, special, main effects and interactions
Numerator df = 4, Number of groups = 10, α err prob = 0.05, Effect size f = 0.5
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95
FIGURE 3: G-POWER PLOT

AGE-BASED RECALL PATTERN ANALYSIS 21
FIGURE 4: G-POWER CALCULATION SCREEN

AGE-BASED RECALL PATTERN ANALYSIS 22
FIGURE 5: G-POWER RESULTS WITH MEDIUM EFFCET SIZE