Anatomy and Physiology of Musculoskeletal, Integumentary, and Cells and Tissues Systems

HLT54115 Diploma of Nursing
HLTAAP003 Analyse and respond to client health information
Written Assessment Student Copy
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Instructions to Students
This assessment requires students to submit a written assessment for each of the body
systems studied in this unit
- Cells and Tissues
- Integumentary System
- Musculoskeletal System
- Nervous System
- Endocrine and Senses System
- Cardiovascular System
- Respiratory System
- Urinary System
- Lymphatic System
- Immune System
- Gastrointestinal System
- Reproductive System
Students will be required to answer the following questions, according to each body system,
to demonstrate your knowledge of the Anatomy and Physiology of the human body.
1. What is the Anatomy of this system?
What is it?
2. What is the Physiology of this system?
How does it work?
3. Provide a pictorial representation.
4. Does this body system work with other systems in the body? How?
5. List 2 diseases (pathophysiology) of this system and how they impact on it.
6. List 2 Medications and contraindications and contraindications and
contraindications related to the diseases chosen. Include their use, drug
interactions, and side effects.
7. How does this system defend itself? What are the Immune Responses related to
this system?
8. What are the main signs of aging according to this system?
9. List types of trauma
10. What Nursing Interventions and planning services would you implement/action when
caring for a client with the above-chosen diseases?
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The following websites may assist with this assessment
http://www.innerbody.com/
http://www.livescience.com/37009-human-body.html
Cells and Tissues
1. Anatomy
Cells
Cells are the smallest functional units of the body. It is composed of organelles enclosed in a
cell membrane conferring structural and functional stability. The organelles are contained in
a matrix called the cytoplasm or cytosol. Organelles are functional structures that enable the
cell to carry out its various functions and include the nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes,
lysosomes, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum and microfilaments (Waugh and Grant
2014).
Types of cells
They can either be somatic cells that form the major tissues of the body, reproductive cells
that are involved in reproduction or stem cells that form any other cell. Somatic cells of
similar function form tissues (Waugh and Grant 2014).
Tissues
Consists of a large number of cells with similar functions. The main types of tissues include
epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue (Waugh and Grant 2014).
2. Physiology
The human cell through is various organelles has different functions. The cell membrane
provides protection to the cell and a medium of transport of substances across different
cells. The mitochondria is an important organelle in that it functions to generate ATP, a
cellular energy source through aerobic respiration (Hall 2015). Growth and differentiation
occurs at the cellular level due to cell division using DNA stored in the nucleus and
ribosomes that translate RNA into proteins. The collection of cells forms tissues which in turn
forms organs hence the cell acts as the main building block of the human body (Barrett,
Barman, Boitano, and Brooks 2010).
3. Pictorial Representation
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4. Related systems/ how
The cell is related to each and every system in the body as it serves as the main building
block of each system. Cells form tissues that form organs and organs of related functions
form organ systems.
5. Pathophysiology
The main cell pathology known is carcinogenesis which is cancer formation due to aberrant
and uncontrolled cell division. Usually, the cell division cycle has stages that allow restriction
of cell division when necessary but some cells lack these control stages either due to the
genetic makeup (oncogenes) or lack of regulatory genes (proto-oncogenes). What follows is
uncontrolled replication and neoplasia of different cell types (Gómez-López, Lerner, and
Petritsch 2014).
Another cell pathology is sickle cell disease which is a defect in red blood cell production
causing them to deform and conformational change in low oxygen tension and clog small
vessels. This impairs oxygen delivery with hypoxia and causes severe pain and ischemia
(Akinsheye et al. 2011).
6. Defense and Immune Responses
The cell is protected by the lipid cell membrane that is semipermeable to some substances
but does not permit entry of others. Carbohydrate molecules attached to the cell membranes
also have an immunologic function by acting as receptors for hormones and other
chemicals. Some cells are immunologic in function such as lymphocytes which contain
receptors that recognize foreign material and destroys them.
7. Medications and contraindications
Cancer treatment agents are cytotoxic drugs that target the cells at different stages of cell
division hence destroying rapidly dividing cancer cells. Such drugs include methotrexate,
doxorubicin, mitomycin among others. These drugs, however, also harm normal cells
dividing leading to adverse effects. They are contraindicated in aplastic anemia because
they affect blood cell production.
8. Degenerative Changes
Degenerative cells change include organelle failure leading to accumulation of toxins, free
radicals, and enzymatic lysis. This eventually leads to apoptosis of cells as they lose their
function.
9. Types of Trauma
Oxidative damage, toxins and free radical damage are some of the injuries to cells. Blunt
and penetrating injuries cause damage to tissues.
10. Nursing Interventions and planning services
Acute pain is one of the nursing diagnoses.
Desired outcomes include the client to report pain relief.
Interventions include
 Assess the client’s pain using a pain scale, noting the location, character, precipitants
and relievers
 Encourage the patient to rehydrate and take adequate nutrition.
 Administer the prescribed drug therapy
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Integumentary System
1. Anatomy
It is composed of the skin, accessory glands, nails, and hair. The skin is composed of three
layers the epidermis and dermis with a subcutaneous layer. The epidermis is the outermost
layer made of stratified keratinized squamous epithelium and confers protection from the
environment. The dermis contains accessory structures including sebaceous glands, hair
follicles with erector Pilli muscles, blood vessels, sensory nerve endings, sweat glands with
their ducts and lymphatic channels (Waugh and Grant 2014).
2. Physiology
The skin is waterproof owing to keratinized layers and protects the underlying structures
from injury, radiation, dehydration, mild trauma and chemical agents. The sweat glands, hair,
and erector pili muscles are involved in thermoregulation (Barrett, Barman, Boitano, and
Brooks 2010). It is also a sensory organ and is involved in the reflex arc due to the presence
of sensory receptors in the dermis.
It is involved in calcium metabolism through the production of vitamin D when exposed to
sunlight. It is a minor excretory organ for some substances including urea, sodium and other
chemicals in sweat (Sinnatamby 2011).
3. Pictorial Representation
4. Related systems/ how
The skin is related to the nervous system due to involvement in sensory perception. It
contains sensory nerve endings that are sensitive to touch, temperature and pain. It is also
related to the skeletal system through its role in calcium metabolism via vitamin D production
5. Pathophysiology
Skin infections are the most common pathologies and include bacterial, viral and fungal
infections. They cause different manifestations including ulceration, macules, papules,
excoriations, scaling, pustules, patches and abscesses (James, Elston, and Berger 2011).
Other disorders are non-infective inflammatory disorders including eczema which is allergic
dermatitis. It is a hypersensitivity reaction of the skin to various environmental allergens and
foods. It is accompanied by redness, swelling, and exudation of fluids with scaling and
crusting.
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6. Defense and Immune Responses
The skin is the first line defense against invading microbes as it is impervious to them when
intact. It forms a protective layer against the environment and most microbes can’t pass
through. However, when integrity is compromised for example in skin failure syndrome,
burns or penetrating trauma microbes can get in. The immune system, through the innate
and adaptive immunity help destroy the microbes through mounting an immune response.
Also, integrity is restored through wound healing either by primary or secondary intention.
7. Medications and contraindications
Medications for skin infection can either be oral, parenteral or topical preparations. Topical
preparations are most commonly used where antibacterial for example silver sulfadiazine for
infection in burns or topical griseofulvin for fungal infections. They are mixed with hydrophilic
vehicles to enable penetration and concentration in the skin (Katzung, Masters, and Trevor
2012).
Allergic skin reactions are treated by using anti-allergy medication such as antihistamines,
adrenaline or emollients for the rash.
8. Types of Trauma
Trauma involving the skin includes blunt trauma, penetrating trauma, chemical burns,
electrical burns and thermal burns. They all compromise the integrity of the skin and cause
skin failure syndrome.
9. Nursing Interventions and planning services
The desired outcomes are for the client to obtain optimal skin integrity as shown by intact
skin.
Interventions include
 note the skin for lesions including secondary changes such as excoriations.
 encourage the patient to maintain hygiene.
 Assess for aggravators such recent products used including soaps, cleaning
solvents, and synthetic fibres.
 Apply medication as prescribed including topical steroids, antibacterial creams
and ointments.
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Musculoskeletal System
1. Anatomy Skeletal – bones
Bone is a strong type of connective tissue that gives the body its shape, posture, and
stability. They are classified as shoer, long, irregular, flat and sesamoid. Combination of
these bones forms the skeleton- axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton. The axial
skeleton includes the skull bones, the vertebral column, and the thoracic cage. The
appendicular skeleton consists of the shoulder girdle and upper limb and the pelvic girdle
and the lower limb (Waugh and Grant 2014).
Joints
A joint is the point of articulation of two or more bones. Some have no movement (fibrous),
some allow some movement (cartilaginous) and some are freely movable (synovial). Fibrous
joints are fixed for example between the skull bones, between the teeth and the maxilla and
mandible. Cartilaginous joints allow limited motion including the symphysis pubis and
vertebral joints. Synovial joints are freely movable and are classified as ball and socket such
as shoulder and hip joint, hinge joint such as elbow, knee, ankle and interphalangeal joints,
gliding joints such as sternoclavicular, acromioclavicular and carpal joints, pivot joints such
as proximal radioulnar joints, condyloid and saddle joints such as the wrist,
temporomandibular, metacarpophalangeal and metatarsophalangeal joints (Waugh and
Grant 2014).
Muscles
The muscle tissue involved in the musculoskeletal system is skeletal muscle. It is voluntary
muscle since it is under conscious control and is responsible for movement around joints.
They attach to bone via tendons and mediate movement. Microscopically they are
composed of thin cylindrical muscle cells (Waugh and Grant 2014).
2. Physiology
The bones, joints, and muscles of the body work together to enable mobility, movement and
structural framework of the body (Barrett, Barman, Boitano, and Brooks 2010). The bone is
made up of osteoid matrix laid by osteoblasts and is continually remodeled by osteoclasts.
The bone is divided into epiphysis, the metaphysis, and diaphysis. The periosteum covers
the bone and is responsible for blood supply and laying down new bone when there is bone
loss. Calcium is the abundant element in bone and calcium homeostasis is controlled by
parathyroid hormone, calcitonin and vitamin D (Barrett, Barman, Boitano, and Brooks 2010).
The bone marrow lines the inside of bones and is responsible for hematopoiesis. Muscle
cells contract to move joints through excitation-contraction coupling mechanism (MacIntosh,
Holash, and Renaud 2012).
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3. Pictorial Representation
4. Related systems/ how
The bone is intimately related to the endocrine system through bone mineralization and
resorption mediated by parathyroid hormone, calcitonin, vitamin D and estrogen. The
musculoskeletal system is also related to the nervous system since muscle contraction
requires excitation coupling through a nerve impulse. It is related to the hematologic and
cardiovascular system through blood production in the bone marrow.
5. Pathophysiology
Two disorders related to this system include osteomyelitis which is an infection of bone and
myositis which is an infection of the muscle (Berbari, Steckelberg, and Osmon 2015).
Bacterial invasion is more common leading to inflammation and suppurative necrosis of
bone and muscle (Gherardi 2011).
6. Defense and Immune Responses
The system is extensively supplied by lymphatics and blood vessels meaning an invasion by
microbes leads to a quick immune response involving the humoral and cellular immunity.
7. Medications and contraindications
Antibiotics are as effective in treating bone and muscle infection as the superficial infections.
However, systemic administration of drugs that have bone penetration is important as some
do not penetrate bone well and may lead to chronicity (Spellberg and Lipsky 2011). Some
examples of antibiotics include floxacillin, clindamycin, and vancomycin.
8. Degenerative Changes
The most degenerative change in this system is joint and bone degeneration leading to joint
osteoarthritis and osteoporosis (Bijlsma, Berenbaum and Lafeber 2011). With weight bearing
and age, joint cartilage is worn out leading to joint destruction and pain (Rachner, Khosla,
and Hofbauer 2011).
9. Types of Trauma
Trauma in this system can be blunt trauma, penetrating trauma, and burns. The most
common outcome is bone fractures leading to loss of function.
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