Human Physiology and Organ Systems

This assignment delves into various aspects of human physiology, covering the structure and function of essential organ systems. It examines topics such as cardiovascular and respiratory physiology, the role of intestinal epithelial cells in immunity, and energy production in sperm cells. The provided readings explore these concepts through scientific articles and textbooks, offering a comprehensive understanding of how different body systems work together to maintain homeostasis.

Running head: BIOLOGY1
Biology 1
Name of the Student
Name of the University
Author note

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Task1
Part 1
Cells-Thesearethebasicunitsoftheformoflife.Itconsistofallthestructuralandfunctionalaspectsneedeforthegrowthanddevelopmentoftheorganism.Tissues-Tissuesarethegroupofcellswhichareofsimilarstructure.Eachofthetissuehassomedifferentfunctionwhichisdonebythewrokingofallthecellstogether.Organs-Organsareformedbytheassociationofthetissuestoserveaspecificfunction.Theorgansaremadeupoffourtypesoftissue;epithelialtissue,whichformstheinnerlining,connectivetissuewhichhelpstotransportthenutrients;muscletissuethatprovidesupporttotheorgansandnervetissuewhichsendstheelectricimpulsetothebrainanddifferentorgans.Organsystem-Agroupoforganstogethermakeanorgansystem.Theorgansofourbodyareoftwotypes-externalorgansandinternalorgans.Organism-Anorganismismadeupoftheorgansystemandtheycancarryoutallthelifeprocessnecessayfordailylife.LEVEL OF ORGANISATION OF THE HUMAN BODY

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Labelling of the above picture
System name: respiratory system
Organ Name Function
1 Nasal cavity Its function is to moisturize and purify the air that is entering into the body,
before reaching the lungs
2 Right
bronchus
The main function of the right bronchus is to carry the purified air from the
trachea into the right lungs.
3 Bronchi The bronchi contain C-shape cartilage rings that provide the passage of the
air open.
4 Bronchioles The bronchioles uses the mucus and the cilia that are situated in the inner
lining of the bronchioles for trapping the dust and keeping the lungs safe

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from the other impurities.
5 Nasopharynx Nasopharynx helps a person to breathe by remaining open all the time. It
also helps in trapping the bacteria and viruses, so that the lungs can get pure
air.
6 Trachea Trachea mainly provides a pathway for the air to entering the lungs. Also,
the epithelial cell of trachea secretes mucus which helps in trapping dust
and other contaminants and prevent them from reaching the lungs.(Gilbert-
Barness, Spicer and Steffensen 2014).
7 Left
bronchus
The main function of the left bronchus is to carry the purified air from the
trachea into the left lungs.
8 Diaphragm The diaphragm mainly helps in respiration by contracting and relaxing
itself. When the diaphragm contracts it leads to the enlargement of the
volume of the thoracic cavity and expands the lungs, which helps the air to
flow into the lungs (Lumb 2016).

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Labelling of the above diagram
System name: pulmonary circulatory system
Organ Name Function
1 Aorta Aorta is a type of artery that carries blood from the heart. It
generally ascends from the left ventricle, is curved towards the
left and descends through the thorax and abdomen.
2 Pulmonary artery The pulmonary artery is mainly responsible for the transport
the oxygenated blood from the heart towards the lungs. The
main artery is divided into two - the left pulmonary artery and
the right pulmonary artery, each of these pulmonary artery
transports the blood to the respective lung (Lavie et al. 2015).

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3 Pulmonary vein Pulmonary veins are the type of veins that are mainly
responsible for carrying of the oxygenated blood to the left
atrium of heart from the lungs. This distinguishes
the pulmonary veins from the other veins of the body.
4 Left ventricle During the systole, the ventricles used to contract and pumps
the blood into the body, but during diastole, the ventricles gets
relaxed and are filled with blood again (Sherwood 2015).
5 Portal vein The portal vein is a vessel that transports the blood from
spleen and the gastrointestinal tract to the liver.
6 Inferior vena cava The inferior vena cava is a type of vein that generally carries
the deoxygenated blood to the right atrium of heart from the
lower part of the body (Rizzo 2015).
7 Aorta Aorta is a type of artery that carries blood from the heart. It
generally ascends from the left ventricle, is curved towards the
left and descends through the thorax and abdomen (Miller
2013).
8 Superior vena cava SVC is a type of vein that carries the deoxygenated blood from
the upper part of the body to the heart.

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Labelling of the above diagram
System name: digestive system
Organ Name Function
1 Mouth It helps in chewing, which breaks the food into pieces
making it easier for the digestion (Chapman 2013).
2 Esophagus It performs the contraction and relaxation known as
peristaltic movement, so that it can deliver the food to the
stomach.
3 Stomach Stomach used to secrete some strong and powerful acid that
help in the breakdown of the food so that they can be easily
digested (Hall 2015).
4 Small intestine It is made up of duodenum, jejunum and ileum. Duodenum
is responsible for the breakdown of the food. Jejunum and
the ileum help in absorbing the nutrients into the blood

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stream (Zorn 2017).
5 Large intestine It absorbs the water from the undigested food and transfer
the waste of the body to the anus.
6 Anus Its generally eliminate the unwanted semisolid matter,
known as faeces that is produced while digestion of the food
7 Rectum It receives the faeces from the colon and store there until
defecation (Shier, Butler and Lewis 2015).
8 Pancreas It secretes digestive enzyme for the breakdown of the
biochemical.
10 Liver It processes the nutrients that are absorbed from the mall
intestine.
Part 3
The division of labour for respiratory system is the admit to the progress of clan in clan down
patient increase its lengths; having d rest of the words
The division of labour for the circulatory system is transport of blood and nutrients throughout
the body.
The division of labour of the digestive system is the breaking of the food and absorbing the find.
of energy
Task 2

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Cube size Surface area Volume SA:V ratio
2 cm cube 24 8 3:1
4 cm cube 96 64 3:2
6 cm cube 216 216 1:1
8 cm cube 384 512 3:4
a) Surface to volume ratio is important for the diffusion process. In the above calculation, as
the cube size increases or cell gets bigger in size, the surface area to volume ratio is
decreased. When a cell is small, it has large SA: V ratio while a large cell has small ratio.
When a cell grows in size, the volume increases at greater rate as compared to surface
area and as a result, SA: V ratio eventually decreases (Banavar et al. 2014).
Cells need to be smaller because it depends on diffusion for moving the substances inside
and outside of cell. When cell grows, there is less membrane for diffusion of substances
resulting in deficient of nutrients in the centre of the cell. This results in less efficient
diffusion, slowing down of cell processes and eventually stoppage of cell growth. The
cells then need to divide in small cells so that each can have larger surface to volume
ration increasing efficient diffusion of materials. Therefore, it is important for large
organisms to become multi-cellular rather than increasing the size of cells for efficient
diffusion, exchange of materials and proper growth of cells (Atanasov 2012).
b) Specialized cells in humans aid in becoming multicellular rather than being unicellular.
As the organism, become larger in size, cell differentiation help to form different types of
cell for different functions. These cell differentiation result in specialized cells in
mutlicellular organisms providing small cells, more efficient diffusion as there is high

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SA: V ratio. Specialized cells help to maintain the internal environment of the cell and
provide cell needs. Each cell type is formed and operates differently through the process
of cell differentiation intending to carry out different functions of the body. In
multicellular organisms, this ratio (SA:V) is important as it helps to overcome small cell
size issues. When cell divides in multicellular organisms, the surface area increases for
better diffusion process, work efficiently for growth of cells and regulation of
biochemical processes (Helander and Fändriks 2014).
Task 3
1. The labelling for spermatozoa include (top to bottom)
a) Acrosome
b) Nucleus
c) Neck
d) Mitochondria
e) Tail
The three parts include
1. Head
2. Middle piece
3. Tail
4. End piece
2. The labelling for ovum include (outer to inner)
a) Follicles of corona radiata

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b) Vitelline membrane
c) Zona pellucida
d) Cytoplasm
e) Nucleus
3. The labelling include (top to bottom)
a) Microvilli
b) Nucleus
c) Goblet cell
d) Basement membrane

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4. The labelling includes:
1. Dendrite
2. Nucleus
3. Cell body
4. Nodes of Ranvier
5. Axon
6. Nerve endings (axon terminal)
Human Sperm cells are male reproductive cells comprises of two main parts: head and tail that
performs the biological function of DNA passing during meiosis and tail provides momentum in
reaching egg cell. The structure of sperm is perfectly made for carrying out its function. It is
divided into four main sections: head, neck, middle piece and tail. They are male gametes that
are formed in testis and maturation takes place in epididymis. The main function of sperm cell is
to pass the genetic information for the production of new offspring. They are smallest cells in
human body comprising of three main parts: head, middle piece and tail. Nucleus contains DNA
of cell and contains enzymes that help it to break egg cell membrane. It contains genetic
information for the penetration to egg cell membrane (González-Marín, Gosálvez and Roy
2012).

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Acrosome present in human sperm cell contain digestive enzymes like acrosin and
hyaluronidase that help to break the ovum outer membrane called zona pellucida and then allow
haploid nucleus of sperm cell to join with ovum haploid nucleus. It is present at the tip of sperm
providing a protective coat to move through egg and allow plasma membrane of both egg and
sperm to fuse together. It serves three main purposes: proteolytic enzymes release, acrosomal
process extension and membrane protein exposures. Middle piece is packed with mitochondria
that provide energy for the sperm cell providing motility (Piomboni et al. 2012). The sperm uses
this energy to move through the body. Tail contains helps in the movement of sperm to egg. It
acts as propeller that moves around like long flagella that help in pushing the sperm forward.
With this energy propulsion, a sperm can travel 30 inches per hour as it helps to move fast as per
its size. One sperm cell alone cannot serve the process of fertilization and millions of sperm
release during ejaculation.
Human Ovum cells are the female reproductive cell or gamete. It unites with sperm cell during
the process of fertilization to form an embryo that eventually results in the formation of new
organism. Ovum is not capable of swimming and spherical in shape. It comprises of nucleus,
cytoplasm, cellular bodies and cytoplasm. The function of ovum cell is to provide right
environment for fertilization by sperm and contribute the other haploid set of chromosomes. Ova
provide nutrients for the growing embryo until implantation (Lupton 2013). It is large and
contains many important inner structures. The nucleus is also called germinal spot or vesicle and
cytoplasm called vitellus or ooplasm. The yolk provides nutrients for nourishment of growing
embryo and plasma membrane is called vitelline membrane. It controls the exchange of nutrients
inside and outside ovum cell. Zona pellucida act as jelly coat being a thick and protein-based
layer that covers vitelline membrane outside protecting egg. It is involved in sperm binding

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during the process of fertilization and preventing polyspermy (binding of more than one sperm).
It also supports communication between follicle cells and oocytes during oogenesis, protection
of oocytes, egg, embryos and regulation of interactions between free-swimming sperm and
ovulated eggs during and after the fertilization process. Adjacent to zona pellucida, corona
radiata is the cumulus oophorus innermost layer that provide outer protective ovum glycoprotein
layer in the ovum. The main function of this layer is to provide supply of vital proteins to the cell
(Gupta et al. 2012).
The cytoplasm of ovum contains organelles: Golgi apparatus, mitochondria and
cytoplasmic reticulum that provide energy for the reproductive processes. It intermediates
information transfer between organelles and assurance of insemination process. Firstly, it
dissolves the sperm structures except genetic material and then cytoplasm spindles arrange
themselves into pairs of 24 chromosomes for the continuity of genetic information accession
(Gadella 2012).
Epithelial cells in ileum that line microvilli or villi secrete carbohydrase and protease enzymes
that are important for carbohydrate and protein digestion in the intestinal lumen. Microvilli are
columnar epithelial membrane protrusions that help in increasing surface area for the process of
diffusion and minimization of any volume increase. It is involved in the functions of secretion,
absorption, mechanotransduction and cellular adhesion. The villi are lined with simple columnar
epithelial cells called enterocytes that are tall and present from middle to basal nuclei having a
apical brush like appearance. These microvilli in small intestine are tiny and hair-like projections
of mucosa that helps in increasing small intestine surface area so that more nutrients are allowed
and absorbed (Mabbott et al. 2013).

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The basement membrane (BM) comprises of plasma cells and lymphocytes that populate
lamina propria of small intestine. BM is an area of loose connective tissue that supports mucosal
lining tissue that extends to villi. The mucosa of epithelial cells is lined by lamina epithelialis
that comprises of goblet cells and enterocytes. Mucosa is also covered by simple squamous
epithelium and lamina propria serosa, a connective tissue layer present underneath. Microfold or
M cells are present on the dome shaped epithelium that are counted among follicle-associated
epithelial cells (FAE) (Peterson and Artis 2014). The main function of this epithelium is to pick
antigens from the lumen of intestine and transport them to antigen-presenting cells (APCs). This
serves as immunological functions that include transfer and access of antigens. The epithelium
present in villi is tall columnar epithelial cells that secrete mucin and helps in the lubrication of
contents of intestine and epithelium protection. They are tall and present on enterocyte on the
cell apical surface.
Motor neuron is a neuron that has its cell body located in spinal cord and axon or fibres
projecting outside spinal cord and control effector organs like glands or muscles directly or
indirectly. It gets information from other body neurons and conveys command to organs,
muscles and glands. The peripheral nervous system comprises of motor neurons that carry
signals out of CNS. The cell body of some PNS like motor neurons control movement of skeletal
muscles are located in CNS. Motor neurons have axons that run through CNS to muscles and are
innervated or connected (Szekely and Antal 2013).
Cell body or soma produce proteins like neuronal proteins and consist of branching that is
short called dendrites. The receiving and information processing takes place in dendrite and
soma. The incoming signals called excitatory tend to make neuron active by generating an
electrical impulse and inhibitory when the electrical impulse goes away from neuron cell. Axons

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are long extensions that are similar in diameter that arises from cell body called axon hillock. In
motor neurons, action potential is generated or initiated at the axon hillock. Axon endings are
called synapses that are neuron-to-neuron connections where information is carried from one
neuron to target neuron. In this way, impulses are transferred from one motor nerve cell to
another. It acts as neuronal junction that helps in the function of communication to target cells
carried between axon and its terminals from one neuron to another (Kettenmann, Kirchhoff and
Verkhratsky 2013).
Task 4
a) Epithelial tissue: This tissue lines the outer surface of the human body (skin,
integumetary system) made of keratinized, dead stratified squamous epithelial cells.
It is also present inside the lumina and cavities of the body. It is also present in organs
of digestive system: small intestine comprising of stratified, keratinous, and squamous
epithelium.
The primary function of epithelium in skin is for the protection of underlying tissues
from desiccation, radiation, pathogen invasion, toxins, physical trauma and chemical
exchange between the tissues that are lying underneath and body cavity. It also helps
in sensation as it contains sensory nerve endings connecting the body to outer stimuli.
It also helps in secretion of hormones, enzymes, fluids, and acts as barrier in
protecting vulnerable tissues or structures deeper into the body. Concisely, skin
epithelium serves the main function of perception of information from environment,

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protection and body temperature control and secretion of materials (Guillot and
Lecuit 2013).
The small intestinal epithelium in digestive system facilitates coordinated digestion,
absorption, and motility. It comprises of layer of cells forming luminal surface of
gastrointestinal tract comprising of simple columnar epithelium. It helps in the
absorption of useful substances and acts as barrier against pathogens. It is the most
important and extensive mucosal body surface separating intestinal components
(external environment) from the body. Intestinal epithelium function in adaptive and
innate immunity by monitoring extracellular and intracellular environment,
communication of messages to neighbouring cells and initiation of active repair and
defensive mechanisms (Gallo and Hooper 2012).
b) Connective tissue: Loose connective tissue is present in fat or adipose tissue where
fibres are intertwined loosely with other embedded cells. Dense connective tissue is
present in tendons that attach muscles to bones.
The main function of adipose tissue is to store energy in form of fat and helpful in
insulation and cushioning the body. It acts as protective padding and nutrients reserve
for the body. The loose connection of specialized adipocyte cells embedded in
collagen fibres mesh act as fuel tank for the storage of triglycerides and lipids. It is
present as brown and white fat in the body. White adipose tissue help in the
collection, storage and release of lipids. As lipids are stored, it acts as protective
cushion that resists shock and insulation layer against excessive heat loss. Lipids are
the main fuel reserve of white adipose tissue comprising of triglycerides efficient in
storing energy that is needed (Wronska and Kmiec 2012).

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Tendons are highly organized dense connective tissue that joins muscle to bones and
capable of resistance of body from high tensile forces and transit these heavy jerks
from muscle to bones. The regular, densely arranged collagenous tissue made of
fibres acts as ground substance and provide support to various cell shapes. In this
way, tendons are helpful in the movement of bone or any structure. Tendons are
flexible that provide movement at joints providing bending and act as damping tissue
for the absorption of shock and limiting of potential damage too muscles. It also
shows high extensibility degree to recover from elastic effect as it can recover easily
(Halper and Kjaer 2014).
c) Muscle tissues are discrete structures that are found inside heart and skeletal muscle
where it serves the function of moving substances inside the body.
In heart, cardiac muscle tissues are located in heart walls that are striated and have
involuntary control. They perform the function of coordinated contractions in heart
that helps to pump blood out of ventricles and atria to blood vessels of
body/left/systemic and lung/right/pulmonary circulatory systems. This mechanism is
called heart systole that is mainly coordinated by cardiac muscle cells. It is greatly
responsible for pumping of blood and send signals or hormones from brain that adjust
the contraction rate where it stimulates the cardiac muscle tissues to contract. Cardiac
muscle cells have self-stimulation mechanism and so it considered intrinsically or
autorhythmic control (Feinberg et al. 2012).
Skeletal muscles also composed of voluntary muscle tissue perform the function of
walking, speaking or writing that requires these kinds of muscles. The main function
is contraction in moving body parts closer to the bone where the muscle attachment is

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present. Skeletal muscles are also attached to two bones across joints where muscle
serves in moving body parts closer to each other. These muscles also help in
regulation of temperature and nutrition where it is divided into homeostasis and in
providing support and function through the process of relaxation and contraction
mechanisms (Pedersen and Febbraio 2012).
d) Nervous tissue: It is found in peripheral nerves (PN) and organs of central nervous
system like brain. It is comprised of neurons that are specialized cells and has the
ability to react to stimuli via sending of signals down nerve cell strand called axon.
In PN, these tissues serve the purpose of regulation and control of activity and bodily
functions. It helps to connect peripheral nervous system to organs, limbs and serve as
relay organ between brain and spinal cord with the rest of the body. PNS is divided
into autonomic and somatic nervous system where it provides as connection between
organs and CNS allowing system to work in two different states. Schwann cells
present in PNS helps to produce myelin for the axons in CNS neurons (Kumar and
Brockes 2012).
Peripheral nervous tissue in brain made of neurons where it helps in the transmission
of information throughout the body. Neuroglial cells are also present in brain that
support nerve cells but does not contribute in nerve impulse transmission as it receive
nerve impulses from rest part of the body. Astrocytes are present in brain that helps in
brain development and the migration of neurons, supply of nutrients and removal of
excess neurotransmitters and aid in blood-brain barrier formation. Ependymal cells
are also present that provide ventricle lining of brain and central spinal cord canal. It
also forms cerebrospinal fluid and aids in its circulation. Microglial cells are also

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present that protect CNS from pathogens by clearing debris and perform scavenging
function. Oligodendrocyte is another peripheral nervous tissue present in brain that
forms a supporting network for CNS neurons (da Silva et al. 2014).
Task 5
The key feature between stem cells (SC) and specialized cells is that SCs give rise to
specialized cells. They are unspecialized cells that do not contain any tissue-specific structures
that perform specialized roles. Differentiation is the process through which unspecialized cells
become specialized to perform a particular function. SCs are unspecialized that are capable of
differentiation to become mature cells. Specialized cells are already differentiated to become
specialized to perform specific body functions (Lamouille, Xu and Derynck 2014).
SCs are capable of division and self- renewing by replicating many times, as they renew
and grow at the same place of derivation. On the other hand, specialized cells function at the
same place of differentiation as they function at distinct locations. Cells like hematopoietic stem
cells, cells in brain, bone marrow, skin, liver, eye, pancreas, muscle, gastrointestinal tract and eye
are capable of renewing and dividing as they are unspecialized giving rise to specialized cells.
Whereas, the specialized cells like skin fibres, liver cells, epithelial cells, smooth muscle cells
and cardiac muscle cells in human perform specialized and unique function. SCs have the ability
to proliferate continuously throughout their life in the organism. On the other hand, specialized
cells lack the ability to proliferate and distinct from SCs by shape, size, membrane potential,
metabolic activity and signal responsiveness (Cheung and Rando 2013).
In laboratories, scientists are developing artificial organs like ear by using stem cells.
Although, it is done in labs, ears are harder as it is difficult to make all right contours and skin

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need to be pulled through its entire structure. This novel method is a boon for individuals with
lost ear or with a deformity where the artificial ear works as real ear. 3D printing of ear is done
in tissue engineering using stem cells that can be used as a useful treatment for microtia patients.
These adipose derived stem cells have properties for mutlipotential differentiation and self-
renewal. The three-dimensional scaffolding of tissue-engineered has the capacity to mimic
cellular environments in vivo. Earlier, stem cells were derived from bone marrow, however, fat
contains best stem cells for this tissue engineering process, as they are easy to extract and present
in plenty. Mesenchymal stem cells are present in fat tissue that have powerful ability to grow
into new fat, muscle or cartilage tissue. After the stem cells are acquired, they are combined with
nano-scaffold polymer in vitro. This process is done via combination of tissue-engineered
scaffolds with seeded SCs for the generation of new organs like artificial ear (Gauvin et al.
2012).
The adipose stem cell procedure is done in five basic steps: harvesting using liposuction
procedure and around 100-200cc is harvested, Stromal Vascular Fraction (SVF) through which
ASCs are separated from fat cells, filtration process for its isolation, activation and infusion with
3D scaffolds (Gir et al. 2012).
For the creation of artificial ear, stem cells are taken from the fat of the patient and grown
in the laboratory for around two weeks being it is used for the covering of ear scaffold through
tissue engineering. This is done by Coleman’s technique, direct excision or liposuction. ASCs
isolation is done from other cells by collagenase digestion and centrifugation. Cells are isolated
through incubation with 0.25% trypsin for 60 minutes and then centrifugation. This trypsin
digestion ASCs has the capacity for great isolation and enhancing proliferation capacity (Murphy
and Atala 2014).

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The 3D scaffolds that are generated by biofabrication via combination of biomaterials,
extracellular matrices, and molecular growth factors are held together that provide 3D
microenvironment for differentiation and cell proliferation and nurturing of adipose stem cells.
Thereafter, ASCs localize themselves, attach and proliferation takes place during the process of
3D encapsulation. Polyglycolic acid polylactic acid is used to form polymer template in the
human ear shape that forms 3D polymer scaffold. Silica nanoparticles increase ASCs
proliferation through ERK ½ signalling pathway where they form small dispersed aggregates in
the scaffold that are small-sized facilitating metabolic exchange. ASCs proliferation is enhanced
by electrical stimulation that serve as a potential driving factor for stimulation and differentiation
as molecular factors. After ASCs proliferation of tissue engineered scaffolds, ASCs are seeded
and implanted under the animal skin and engineered organ is formed. Finally, this organ is
placed in reconstructive and plastic surgery. This process of tissue engineering is useful for the
making of artificial organs in 3D scaffolding (Mannoor et al. 2013).

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