Human Body Systems: A Comprehensive Overview

This assignment delves into various human body systems, examining their structures, functions, and interconnections. It covers topics like the respiratory system's role in gas exchange, the nervous system's control mechanisms, the endocrine system's hormonal regulation, and the immune system's defense against disease. The provided references offer insights into specific aspects of each system, including aging effects, pathophysiological conditions, and the influence of external factors.

Case studies

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CASE STUDY 1..............................................................................................................................3
Structure of cardiovascular system..............................................................................................3
Functions of cardiovascular system.............................................................................................3
Structure of respiratory sysytem..................................................................................................3
Interaction between cardiovascular and respiratory system........................................................4
Effect of age on respiratory and cardiovascular system..............................................................4
Pathophysiology of angina and emphysema................................................................................4
Common risk factors of angina and emphysema.........................................................................5
Assessment of john and actions taken.........................................................................................5
Medical specialists and their roles...............................................................................................6
Artificially acquired immunity....................................................................................................6
CASE STUDY -2............................................................................................................................6
Main Structure of Endocrine System...........................................................................................6
Overview of Normal Functioning of Endocrine System.............................................................6
Pathophysiology of Hypothyroidism and risk factors.................................................................7
Isabella’s sign and symptoms to pathophysiology......................................................................7
Main structure of digestive system..............................................................................................7
Overview of normal function of digestive system.......................................................................8
Main function of immune system................................................................................................8
Pathophysiology of an autoimmune disease................................................................................8
Assessment of Isabella and immediate actions............................................................................9
Health professionals and their roles.............................................................................................9
CASE STUDY -3............................................................................................................................9
Functions of nervous system.......................................................................................................9

Path physiology of multiple sclerosis........................................................................................10
Daisy’s sign and symptoms.......................................................................................................10
Structure of urinary system........................................................................................................10
Overview of function of special senses.....................................................................................11
Impact of special senses on people with multiple sclerosis:......................................................11
Edentulous and dentate..............................................................................................................11
Impact of oral health disease.....................................................................................................12
Assessment of Daisy and immediate action..............................................................................12
Health professionals and their roles...........................................................................................12
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................13

CASE STUDY 1
Structure of cardiovascular system
The cardiovascular system is a structure which moves gases, nutrients and waste among cells,
transfer blood within the body and also help to fight against diseases. The main elements
included in the cardiovascular system are the blood, heart and different blood vessels. There are
different circuits one of among them is a pulmonary circuit which helps in the transfer of blood
through lungs. The other is the systematic circuit whose work is to transfer rest of the blood
throughout the body. Another necessary element is the cardiac cycle, which is determined on the
basis of diastole and systole. In diastole, the heart is in the rest position and fills up the blood
while in systole heart is active in pumping blood.
Functions of cardiovascular system
 The main role of the cardiovascular system is that it supplies nutrients and oxygen to the
body tissues through the bloodstream. The system also helps in removal of waste
products from tissues and carries them to liver and kidney and return the carbon dioxide
back to the lungs from the tissues.
 Khong (2015), asserted that the systems also help in maintaining the thermal balance of
body by distributing the heat during exercise.
 During exercise, the demand for oxygen increases, so cardiovascular system helps in the
transfer of oxygen to the body when required.
 It also helps in fighting against the infections with the help of white blood cells.
 The system also regulates the level of water content in cells, body temperature and the
fluid ph.
Structure of respiratory system
In the human body, the cells require a particular stream of oxygen to live. For this, the
respiratory system helps the cells of the body by providing oxygen and also remove the carbon
dioxide and the waste product which is present if permitted to accumulate. The respiratory
system is divided into three major parts: the respiration muscles, the lungs and the airway. The
lungs perform as a functional part of the system by passing oxygen within the body and the
carbon dioxide away from the body. The airway includes nose, pharynx, mouth, larynx, trachea

and the bronchioles which carry air between the exterior of the body and lungs. The respiration
muscles includes the diaphragm and the muscles which perform together as a pump which
pushes air in and out of lungs while breathing.
Interaction between cardiovascular and respiratory system
One thing which is common between the respiratory and the cardiovascular system is that they
both work towards the similar object that is providing oxygen to body tissues and getting out of
carbon dioxide from the body. The respiratory system associated with providing oxygen to the
blood and evacuating carbon dioxide. At the point when the heart gets blood, the level of oxygen
is low, and the level of carbon dioxide is high, it directs it to the lungs through the pulmonary
blood vessels. At the point when the lungs grow and get natural air from the earth, oxygen is
exchanged in the oxygen blood that is low, which likewise then sends some of its carbon
dioxides again into the lungs. Since this blood has new oxygen in it, it comes back to the heart,
and the heart at that point draws it all through the body.
Effect of age on respiratory and cardiovascular system
The respiratory system and cardiovascular system experiences different transformations with
age. The basic change incorporates chest divider which disables the aggregate respiratory system
in consistency increase in breathing and in the heart respectively. The strength of respiratory
muscles will decline with age and can obstruct a cough that is important for clearing of the
airway. Critically, the changes in the lungs mix the impact of heart and lung sicknesses the
individual may have, particularly those caused by the dangerous impacts of smoking.
In healthy individuals, these age-related changes sometimes prompt side effects. Even in healthy
people, the capacity for a high level of exercise decreases as age decline. Robinson (2014) stated
that this is done by the decline in the functioning of all body parts, especially the heart. This will
result in a slight slowdown of heartbeat rate. With the rise in age, the structure of heart becomes
less flexible.
Pathophysiology of angina and emphysema
The path physiology of angina which is chest pain due to reduced blood flow to heart muscles.
The same results in result in burning in chest and feels like suffocation. The reason behind this is

exertion like strenuous activity, prolonged exertion during work or recreation. The pain is then
spread to left arm, jaw, back and neck. The symptoms of path physiology of angina are:
 Feeling nausea
 Dizziness
 Breathlessness
 Restlessness
 Feeling tired (Ionescu, 2013)
Emphysema is path physiologically termed as the basis for the decrease in pulmonary recoil. The
changes included with this are that it starts with the damage in the airway and air pouches in the
lungs. It improves from a cough with sputum in difficulty in breathing. Critically, the damage
made by the COPD cannot be done again. The signs of COPD include:
 Conciseness of breath while performing routine activities
 Chronic cough
 Numerous infections in respiration
 Blueness in fingernails or on lips.
 Creating high amount of sputum than normal
 Fatigue
 Chest tightness
 Wheezing
Common risk factors of angina and emphysema
The following risk factors of angina and emphysema are:
 USE OF TOBACCO – chewing of tobacco and smoking damage the inner walls of heart
arteries.
 OLDER AGE – men above and women above have a more risk that the other adults
Assessment of John and actions were taken
After studying about the disease of John, it can be seen that this problem has occurred due to
actively smoking of tobacco. To prevent this from happening again, he will have to quit
smoking. For that, the nicotine therapy should be adopted immediately. Next step to stop this
problem changes in his dietary and increasing the physical exercise.

Medical specialists and their roles
 CARDIOLOGIST - he is the physician who has specialization in treating heart problems.
His job is to inform the doctor about new tests and drugs. Lalley, (2013) asserted that the
main roles of cardiologist include advising and then the interpretation of the test and then
treat his patients on the basis of the tests. Sometimes he also has to perform surgeries.
 CARDIAC NURSE - manages test for stress and ECG for patients having heart
conditions and other complications. They monitor patients and organize them for open
surgery of heart .nurses report to the doctor about patients health status and also
communicate with the family of patients. They also aware the communities about
cardiovascular health and its effect.
Artificially acquired immunity
Artificial immunity is usually induced by a vaccine in which antigen is contained. In this, the
person is intentionally made exposed to the antigens with an objective of generating a protecting
immune response. This is of two types: artificial acquired passive and active immunity.
CASE STUDY 2
Main Structure of Endocrine System
The endocrine system provides a mechanism for integration, synchronization and regulation of
all body cells, system and organs. Rotella, Dicembrini & Pala (2017), asserted the main function
of the system comprises regulation of growth, metabolism, reproduction and maturation. Further,
the hormones are released into the blood circulation and may impact various organs of the
human body. The endocrine system is inclusive of major glands that are a pituitary gland,
adrenal glands, pancreas, parathyroid glands, ovaries and testicles (reproductive organs).
Overview of Normal Functioning of Endocrine System
Endocrine system of the human body consists of a group of glands that regulate the process and
systems of the body by secreting hormones (chemical substances present in the human body).
Hormones are further carried out in the blood circulation to act upon targeted organs and tissues.
Hormones are considered significant for initiating particular cells to generate specific actions in
relation to body imbalances. Chapman (2013) specified that these glands are liable to recognize

the requirement of secretion of hormones. This procedure is strongly controlled by the endocrine
system to manage the metabolism system in human body. They are said to be essential in
retaining the functions of body normal. These processes are inclusive of reproduction system,
cellular metabolism sugar homeostasis, sexual development or any nutrients and heart rate,
mood, digestion, sleep and blood pressure (Mowat & Agace, 2014).
Pathophysiology of Hypothyroidism and risk factors
Hypothyroidism mean when the human body is not able to produce sufficient thyroid hormone,
as the major aim of thyroid hormone is to regulate the metabolism of the body; individuals
suffering from thyroid hormone will have signs regarding the slow system of metabolism. Risk
factors of Hypothyroidism are when a female elder than sixty years, suffering from autoimmune
disease, having family heredity of thyroid disease, treated with therapy of radioactive iodine,
gone through the surgery of thyroid, noticing radiations occurring in neck or chest or have gone
through pregnancy or delivery in the last 6 months.
Isabella’s sign and symptoms to pathophysiology
Individuals having hypothyroidism often notice no or not many severe symptoms. Several
symptoms are related to hypothyroidism and can be associated with the underlying causes or
direct impact of sufficient thyroid hormones. The symptoms of pathophysiology are fatigue,
cold, weak hearing and memory, Constipation, dyspepsia, weight gain and weak appetite, lack of
breathing, rough voice. The medical condition of Isabella is not in line with the symptoms which
are usually observed in pathophysiology.
Main structure of digestive system
The digestive system consists of the digestive tract and related organs (Abbas, Lichtman & Pillai,
2014). This track of digestion is a long tube by which food is passed when it is broken down; the
digestive tract is comprised of mouth, then the food goes to throat then the food is passed into
oesophagus, stomach, intestines and ultimately anus. The related organs of digestions are
inclusive of salivary glands which have three pairs; liver, pancreas and gallbladder.
Overview of normal function of digestive system
The normal function of the digestive system is mainly digestion and further absorption.
Digestion refers to the breakdown of food particles in small pieces which are absorbed in the

body. The digestive system is a system is a function of the human body that helps in food
digestion. It conducts its concerned function of turning the food into energy that is required by
the body in order to survive and covering the remains of wastage and its disposal (Parham,
2014). Once the food is consumed, the nutrients are required to be digested and are absorbed and
passed by blood-stream throughout the body.
Main function of immune system
The immune system is comprised of specific cells, organs, proteins and tissues that fight against
germs, infections or microorganisms presented in a human body. D'Aurizio and et al. (2015)
specified that the immune system defends substances and microorganisms that attack system of
the body and the further root cause of diseases. Mostly, the immune system has a great hand
behind saving people from infectious diseases and keeping them healthy. However, in some
cases, immune system problem can result in infections and sickness. The immune system is
considered as a defence system of the body against infections or invaders. Hence, this system
includes cells that work together in order to protect the health system and human body.
Pathophysiology of an autoimmune disease
T-Cell and B-Cells are produced by the immune system of a human body which are capable of
being reactive which self-antigens. However, specified cells are usually killed prior becoming
active with the immune system as they are removed from their role within the immune system.
Autoimmune diseases are systemic diseases which stem the pathogenesis by activation of
lymphocytes which are B- and T- in opposition to the antigens relating to tissues of human body.
Autoimmune diseases are a consequence of particular responses of immune-regulated in
opposition to self-structures. These diseases are the result of transformed immune system
function. These diseases might engage one or multiple organs. This reaction might create a loss
to the hyperfunction of targeted tissue or organ (Cho & Feldman, 2015).
Assessment of Isabella and immediate actions
By considering the medical condition of Isabella, initially, she has to undergo for a laboratory
test of thyroid fuelling the level of hormone in the bloodstream. After the confirmation, the
second test is done that is TSH level. Levels can result abnormal in terms of illness, further in
this analysis TSH testing is discouraged in a situation where thyroid dysfunction is highly

presumed (Knoll, Lodish & Sun, 2015). A high level of TSH shows that thyroid gland is not
able to generate sufficient thyroid hormone, and then the T4 levels are obtained. In accordance
with the case of Isabella, there are several rating scales of symptoms for hypothyroidism; they
offer a high level of objectivity, however, have limited use for diagnosis.
Health professionals and their roles
Some health professional engaged in taking care of Isabella medical condition is a nurse and her
doctor. The major responsibility of a nursing professional is to give proper care to the patient so
as to comfort them. It is significant that a nurse is likely to determine issues arising in medical
condition then developing a treatment plan according to it, further making coordination with
other physicians. TSH tests are considered to be a most important stage in treating
hypothyroidism. Since, these tests will assist the doctor in determining the
appropriate medicines, at initial as well as extraordinary hours.
CASE STUDY -3
Functions of nervous system
The function of the nervous system is to manage the functions of the body. It includes 4 primary
functions which relate to the body area of which the system controls information. There are as
follows:
 The system collects the information both from within the body and the external
environment.
 The system then communicates the collected information to the spinal cord and the brain.
 After communicating the gathered information is then processed.
 At last the nervous system helps in determining the function by which the effectors tend
to act.
Path physiology of multiple sclerosis
Pathophysiology of multiple sclerosis is considered as a disease of central nervous system
(inflammatory demyelinating) that means immune cells which are activated attach the CNS and
further lead to inflammation, tissue cells damage and neurodegeneration MS is an inflammatory
disease that invades myelinated axons in CNS, damaging the axon at inconsistent levels, further

generating considerable physical disability (Aung, Razali & Cho, 2013). MS’s Hallmark is
indicative episodes that take place on the monthly or yearly basis and impact multiple anatomic
locations.
Daisy’s sign and symptoms
The symptoms of the pathophysiology of MS are vision problems, numbness, loss of balance,
bladder and Sexual dysfunction, and weakness and Cognitive problems. By considering the
medical condition of Daisy, it can be said that she is suffering from MS and require immediate
treatment.
Structure of urinary system
The urinary system is said to be the structure that generates and regulated urine to excretion
point. The structure of human body generally has two pairs of the kidney, one pair on the left and
second on the right (Jones, Hard & Mohr, 2013). Formation of urine is done by nephrons,
kidney’s functional unit and is further passed through the system knows as collecting ducts.
The collecting ducts mix all together in order to structure minor calyces which at last joins
kidney pelvis . Further, the urine passes from the pelvis to ureter (a tubular structure that takes
the urine from the kidney to the bladder).
During the process of urination, the urine is kept in the bladder and is released by the urethra.
The process of urine in males, the further starts at the inner urethral orifice in bladder trigone and
keep on going through the outer urethral orifice and then turn into penile urethra, prostatic,
bulbar and membranous.
Fletcher, (2017) specified that in females, the urethra is comparatively shorter, beginning at the
bladder neck and terminating in the vaginal vestibule.
Overview of function of special senses
The special senses consist of five key tools that are used by humans to see the world. These
special senses are a vision, smell, and taste, hear and touch. The ability to see, hear taste and
touch are possible in a human body due to the presence of sensory receptors or special senses or
endings of the peripheral nervous system (element of nervous system inclusive of nerves that
expands from the spinal cord and brain to throughout the body). Senses react to stimulus by

translating the specified stimulus to an impulsive nerve. The nerve is further transmitted by
sensory receptors to the brain, where the feeling of vision, hear, smell and taste are felt. Thus, the
brain gets signals from each sense and understands them to give a sensibility of surroundings
(Solaro, Trabucco & Uccelli, 2013).
Impact of special senses on people with multiple sclerosis:
 Vision: people having a disorder of MS might face vision problem to some extent such as
colour blindness, loss of vision, blurring.
 Hearing: people experiencing issues with hearing can occur from inflammation.
 Taste: researchers recommend that MS impact the taste sense such as not able to taste or
sense salty or sweet food(D'haeseleer and et al., 2015).
 Smell: Studies found that low sense of smell in multiple sclerosis emerges to be
connected to a reduction in the volume of surroundings and olfactory bulb.
 Touch: the ability to touch or dell can be affected by MS increasing the infuriating
feelings like itching, numbness, tingling etc.
Edentulous and dentate
Edentulous refers to being in a situation of not having teeth (toothless), in humans the real
definition edentulous means loss of the tooth. Starting with losing some teeth is known as partial
edentulism, while complete loosing of teeth is known as complete edentulism. Losing all the
teeth can considerably make reduction in life quality, personality and functioning activities on a
daily basis. In short, organisms that never have had teeth can also be said as edentulous.
Individuals who lost teeth in a partial or complete manner is called edentulous while individuals
who have teeth or never been in a situation of losing teeth is known as dentate (Dendrou, Fugger
& Friese, 2015)
.
Impact of oral health disease
Oral health has a significant impact on overall health. The oral disease might affect one’s ability
to eat healthy food. Yamasaki and et al., (2014), asserted that low-grade infection in the mouth
might lead to systemic illness which comprises cardiovascular diseases, pulmonary and lung
disease and poor pregnancy outcomes. Bacteria from the mouth can cause infection in other parts

of the body in the case when the immune system has been weakening by other disease or medical
treatment. The other health issues of Daisy might get affected due to this oral disease. Common
risk factors of oral health are:
 Diet
 Alcohol consumption
 Hygiene
 Injuries
 Control and Stress
Assessment of Daisy and immediate action
By considering the medical condition of Daisy, she is required to get medications that can assist
in easing MS attacks and potentially slow down the disorder. She can also take physical therapies
and related treatment to control and manage these symptoms and disease while improving the
life quality. The Proper dosage of medicine can also help in managing MS disease (Wang &
Kasper, 2014).
Health professionals and their roles
Health professionals involved in caring and curing health condition of Daisy is her doctor and
nurse. The main responsibility of her medical and nursing specialist is to take advanced care and
give proper treatment inclusive of diagnosis adjustment, symptoms management, and
counselling, ensuring the life of quality, providing medication and controlling side effects.
REFERENCES
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Aung, N., Razali, A., & Cho, M. M. (2013). A handbook on special senses (vision, hearing,
smell and taste).
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