Methodological Challenges in Investigating Cognitive Development in Infants

This essay sheds light on the methodological challenges encountered in the outcome investigation of cognitive development in infants, theoretical aspects of Piaget’s and Erikson’s developmental psychology of infancy and childhood, and the role of genetics, regulatory behaviours and motor development on infant development.

Running head: PSYCHOLOGY
PSYCHOLOGY
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Studies related to cognitive growth and development in human infants have largely been
reliant on the descriptive data at the behavioural level which is the age whereby a specific ability
emerges (Bjorklund & Causey, 2017). Over the past four decades, investigations on human
cognitive development have claimed certain degree of abilities in infancy provided the
apparently immature and ineffectual appearance of the newborn (Jones et al., 2014). However,
such revelations have developed as a consequence of the elevating subtle and sensitive
mechanisms whereby the major proportion has shown great degree of dependency on the
behavioural responses such as visual fixations, eye movements, sucking along with the range of
psycho physiological recordings such as heart rate (Estes et al., 2015). As paediatric and clinical
child psychologists have been revealing high degree of engagement in evaluation of infancy at
biological and environment risk, this has been due in part to the reducing rate of mortality along
with the consequential developing series of surviving infants at the elevated risk for
developmental morbidity (Bjorklund, 2013). However, in addition to the awareness on significant
factors of disabilities in terms of serious mental retardation, epilepsy, sensory impairments, a
greater degree of inclination has further aimed on assessing the evaluation of more subtle, high
rate of prevalence and behavioural issues and complexities. The following essay focuses on the
methodological challenges which have been encountered in the outcome investigation of
cognitive development in infants by further shedding light on the theoretical aspects of Piaget’s
and Erikson’s developmental psychology of infancy and childhood. In addition to this, it will
further evaluate the understanding of the role of genetics, regulatory behaviours and motor
development on infant development.
Though the advanced cognitive neuroscience mechanisms have determined infancy
research as an integrated approach to the domain of neurobiological bases of behavioural

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growth and development, the evaluative investigations often demonstrate certain methodological
challenges and issues which tend to influence the findings in the study of infant development
(Jones et al., 2014). It has been noted that in the sphere of developmental evaluative studies, the
cause-effect inferences must be show irritability by the alternative understandings of observed
impacts that could further be generated by certain factors related to confounding influences
(Walfisch et al., 2013). Though it has been distinguished that random assignments does not
demonstrate adequate level of capability in the studies of natural occurrences of conditions
related to extreme low birth weight (ELBW), the cohort also regarded as follow up studies claim
the major conceptualization of causal inferences in terms of ELBW, drug exposure which results
to certain forms of neurodevelopmental outcomes (Tran et al., 2013). Furthermore, selection of
control variables must be established both on conceptual foreground and by the means of
associations which reveal a weak relationship between the variable and the outcomes measure of
interest. However, it has been noted that multiple regression mechanisms are often considered to
be effective but create complexities when multicollinearity has its existence because of elevating
degree of concurrent predictor variables. A second essential challenge with determining to
develop a mechanism of learning which can sustain large complex problems such as visual
perception or language which is a well-established mechanism for attaining awareness must
develop adequate competence to deal with the exponentially significant rate of anticipated
relevant correlations that has its availability in the input (Bernard et al., 2013). For instance, in
randomly ordered series of various elements, there can be witnessed 12 possible unique pairs.
However, when these series are increased it necessitates an equally developing rate of sensory
examples in order to develop the understanding of the relevant pairs which are considered to be
constructive for the organism (Bjorklund & Causey, 2017). At this juncture, it is further to be

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noted that, in the context of natural situational occurrences, there can be witnessed no practical
area of avenue for infants to encounter any such instances. This has been referred to the
computational explosion issue and has been specifically subtle when taken into consideration not
only adjacent pairs of entities but further non-adjacent pairs along with higher-order
combinations of over two elements in any sensory or domain of cognitive development (Mueller
et al., 2015). Furthermore, regardless to the occurrence of the computational explosion
challenges, human observers have been identified as responsive to the statistical probabilities
which further define the fundamental structures which have been embedded in both the spheres
of sequential strings in regards to visual as well as auditory along with spatial arrangements
pertaining to visual entities (Monk, Georgieff & Osterholm, 2013). However, these elements
have the propensity to involuntarily extort a range of statistics that involves other conditional
rate of probabilities which further provide an increased rate of metric of certainty in relation to
the relative frequency of element co-occurrences. These statistical awareness and understanding
is considered to be vigorous and rapid and further executes its operations in an unsubstantiated
mode during infant development (Barac et al., 2014). Furthermore, there can be witnessed a
significantly accumulating instances which acts decisive role and enhances the rate of chances
that infants’ internal illustrations of visual, auditory along with other sensory inputs emerge
based on a fundamental statistical learning mechanism.
In recent times, it has been noted that the implementation of habituation and novelty
responsiveness have led observers to seek for a range of questions related to infancy. For
instance, if an infant looks longer at the novel facial expression, then researchers can evaluate
the difference between the infant’s smiling and frowning expressions (Jones et al., 2014).
Furthermore, roper habituation of infants with an images and further testing them at the later

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phase with the same image makes it possible for researchers to assess the memory of an infant.
In the opinion of renowned biologist and philosopher, Jean Piaget, each infant demonstrates the
ability to construct a comprehensive understanding of the world based on the assumptions and
learning of their own reactions in the world. In order to provide explanations regarding the
cognitive development of infants, Piaget had comprehended the process of adaptation which is
refereed as a process whereby knowledge has been shaped through certain events. The process
of adaptation tends to incorporate two complementary, intertwined as well as powerful processes
such as assimilation and accommodation (Demetriou, Spanoudis & Shayer, 2014). The
theoretical aspects of Piaget noted that knowledge and information can be generated in
accordance to what the infant has already been aware of, such information are considered to be
assimilated (Mueller et al., 2015). However, at certain situational contexts, the child’s level of
understanding and awareness of the world does not allow assimilating new information.
Furthermore, new knowledge often fail to assimilate into the current level of awareness of the
child, two vital conditions can develop, whereby the child reveals utmost incompetence to
assimilate or the child tends to shift its own level of awareness to allow newly developed
understanding to be generated. Furthermore, the sensorimotor period according to Piaget’s
theoretical aspects has its occurrences during infancy by the preoperational, concrete
operational and formal operational courses of childhood (Demetriou, Spanoudis & Shayer,
2014).
It has been noted that during the sensorimotor period, factors related to the ‘thinking’
process constitutes of determining sensory information with increased level of motor activity.
Piaget’s theory claims that infants have the propensity to obtain knowledge through actions like
looking, listening, touching, sucking and grasping. The sensorimotor period comprises a series of

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six stages which initiates from the birth and continues till 2 years of age (Haywood & Getchell,
2014). During these stages infants fail to distinguish that stimuli belong to the concrete entities
with the external world for example the noises and reverberation which generate from other
things to the way they attempt to understand the direction of any moving object for instance, a
child tend to move around the sofa or table to follow the direction of a moving ball and tends to
anticipate the re-emergence of the ball. At this juncture, it is significant to note that though
Piaget’s perspective of infant cognition has been recognized as immensely decisive, several
claims and propositions have posed challenges related to the theoretical aspects of infant
development (Bjorklund, 2013). Furthermore, one of the vital criticisms is that Piaget shed light
on the approaches that infants demonstrate the ability to attain knowledge through movements
that is “motor’ in the course of sensorimotor period and avoided other methods through which
infants can develop knowledge (Spector & Maurer, 2013). Certain observations revealed that
limbless children tend to determine a normal cognitive life regardless to the lack of ordinary
sensorimotor experience during infant development. Thus it can be claimed that Piaget had
shown immense rate of importance to the factors of mobile and tactile exploration and further
avoided other vital sensory as well as organizational abilities which infants possess (Bjorklund,
2013). As Piaget was greatly inclined towards the broader domain concerning the overarching
characteristics of cognitive development from birth through the stage of adolescence, the other
researchers showed immense inclination on the areas of specific elements of cognitive
development, which focus on types of skills infant acquire and during which stages (Mueller et
al., 2015). As researchers of infant cognition have been particularly inclined in the classification,
memory and pretend to play. However, certain significant factors have been associated to the
representational thinking which is understood as the ability to perceive about the objects and

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individuals who are not present (Saccani et al., 2013). Piaget further developed this perception
that this infiltrate did not have its development until the age of two years. Thus the
implementation of various investigative techniques, modern researchers have comprehended the
observation of emblematic perceptions at a considerable young age (Bjorklund, 2013).
At this juncture, it is vital to identify the theoretical aspects of Piaget whereby he shifted
the attention on play away from the domains of social and emotional progress and towards
cognitive development. As Piaget argued that factors related to play had contributed to
intellectual growth through processes of ‘accommodation’ and ‘assimilation’ (Fairbairn, 2013).
However, with the development of symbolic play along with conceptual perceptions,
substantiated through the competence level of a child in the process of signifying the world, it
can be recognized as the groundwork of the development of later symbolic behavioural patterns
(Bjorklund, 2013). The understanding of play stated by Freud allows children to articulate or
explicitly convey the negative or unconstructive sense of emotions and further to resolve those
inner apprehensions within the core of unconscious sense of feeling. Furthermore, the
understanding of catharsis is recognized as the reconciliation of intuitive urges with the demands
and regulations of society as being internalized by the individuals (Spector & Maurer, 2013). As
activities related to play offers certain areas of avenues for infants to accomplish the degree of
catharsis and thus emerges factors concerning distressing experiences and situations by
providing a secured approach to articulate complex sense of emotions. Furthermore, these vital
approaches tend to concentrate on the internal as well as emotional spheres of children and
therefore can be perceived as significantly relevant while dealing with children who have been
encountered with the disruptive situations and disorders of war and civil conflict (Nyaradi et al.,
2013). However, through the theoretical aspects of Freud, these approaches emphasizes on the

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advantageous factors of a dedicated instance and liberty for infants and children to engage in
playful activities within the emotional structure developed by play therapists. Furthermore,
another vital significant aspect while considering cross-cultural facets of play in infant and child
development. Freud had signified the way families from certain cultural backgrounds which
tend to underline the cognitive significance of playful activities with an individual standpoint on
play whereby every component show very object and toy centric. However, families belonging to
other cultural backgrounds show greater degree of propensity to focus on the social factors of
play. Thus it has been noted that the level of interactions within play and the poignant
significance of play are considered to be of immense vitality. Furthermore, it has been identified
by Freud that infants demonstrate a certain degree of capability of erotic activity from the time of
birth (Klein, 2017). The initial phase of manifestations and understanding of childhood or
infantile sexuality occurs in the relation to the bodily functions related to feeding and removal of
bodily wastes. Moreover, of all the vital conceptualizations of Freud, the notions and theoretical
aspects developed by him with regard to the erotic life of infants emerge serious degree of
criticisms from various spheres (Saccani et al., 2013). As in the oral stage developed by Freud,
the infant’s need in attaining pleasure has been sufficiently accomplished through the process of
consuming mother’s milk, the satisfaction of needs vital at this stage is highly dependable on
mother, whereby the mother acts as a first love object for the child. As the process of feeding has
been recognized as one of the most vital activity for a child, factors associated to both
physiological and psychological emotions play influential role in the lives of infants (Freud,
2017).
While each child possess distinctive genetic potentials, both human and animal
observations focus to vital needs that every child has along with the severe long-term impact for

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brain functions if such desires remain unattained. At this juncture, it becomes persuasive that the
consequences of childhood environment with constructive or unconstructive circumstances tend
to correlate with the range of neurodevelopment processes which are associated with factors of
neurogenesis, migration, synaptic sculpting and myelination (Mueller et al., 2015). As genes and
events demonstrate high degree of interdependence, the complex process of developing a human
mind requires both these vital factors whereby the remarkable malleability and adaptability of
humanity is permitted by the genetically-transmitted aptitude to effectively perceive and show
responsiveness to myriad environmental cues which further involves the intricate social-
emotional milieu generated when humans share common habitat and the organs therefore
become immensely sensitive and receptive towards certain environmental factors (Conradt et al.,
2013). At this juncture, it is highly significant to evaluate the stated framework that engages into
factors of awareness, cognition and sense of feelings and emotions in comparison to a more
frugal understanding of global or fundamental aspect of ‘self-regulation’. It has often been noted
that a major segment of children reveal striking advancements in the process of control or
regulation of attention, awareness, cognition as well as emotion from the phase of infancy
through the course of early childhood (Saccani et al., 2013). In addition to this, although
individual divergences have been broad, these factors tend to become considerably constant over
the period by the later phase of early childhood.
Thus, it can be possible to signify infants or children as considerably ‘regulated’ or
controlled relative to each other and further to pertain this factor across several spheres of their
functioning. It is significant to identify that prior to brain imaging and eye tracking came into
consideration, factors associated to motor development have been evaluated on the development
process of infants’ growth. Motor behaviour has been distinguished as both functionally

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comprehensive and directly apparent, factors related to motor development acts as an ideal
model system for comprehending transitions emerging in other areas of development. Thus to
conclude it can be stated that infants’ motor skills and abilities tend to enhance as their bodies
and environments have been undergoing certain phases of transformations. As the body and
environment have been persistently in certain degree of fluctuations, affordances for actions also
tend to undergo changes. Thus infants develop the knowledge to shown inclination towards
appropriate actions by perceiving as well as simplifying affordances for actions.

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