Environmental Impact of Construction Materials

This assignment delves into the environmental impact of different materials used in construction. It examines both traditional and advanced materials, analyzing their degradation processes and influence on the environment. The focus is on understanding the sustainable use of these materials within the context of civil engineering projects.

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 1
A RESEARCH PAPER ON THE USE OF POLYMERS IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION
A Research Paper on Polymers By
Student’s Name
Name of the Professor
Institutional Affiliation
City/State
Year/Month/Day

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 2
Contents
1.0 Introduction:..........................................................................................................................................2
1.1 Background research about types of polymers used in road construction..........................................3
1.2 Background study on Bitumen...........................................................................................................3
2.0 Types of polymers.................................................................................................................................3
2.1 Thermoplastic elastomers..................................................................................................................3
2.2 Thermoplastic polymers....................................................................................................................4
2.3 Thermosetting polymers....................................................................................................................4
3.0 Literature review:..................................................................................................................................5
3.1 Thermoplastic elastomers............................................................................................................5
3.1.2 Styrene–butadiene–rubber (SBR)...............................................................................................7
3.1.3 Styrene Isoprene styrene.............................................................................................................8
3.1.4 Natural rubber.............................................................................................................................8
3.2 Thermoplastic polymers:.............................................................................................................9
3.2.1Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA)....................................................................................................9
3.2.2 Polypropylene...........................................................................................................................10
3.2.3 Polyethylene (PE).....................................................................................................................11
3.2.4 Polyvinyl Chloride: -................................................................................................................12
3.3 Thermosetting polymers:...........................................................................................................13
3.4 Application of polymers..................................................................................................................15
4.1 Summary table;................................................................................................................................16
4.2 Matrix table.....................................................................................................................................17
5.0 Conclusion and Recommendations......................................................................................................18
References:................................................................................................................................................19

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 3
1.0 Introduction:
Engineers and scientists are looking for the methods to improve the road performance. For strong
and rigid roads concrete is used and bitumen is used in the flexible roads. The steady traffic
increase in terms of the vehicles for commerce and variation of the seasonal and daily
temperatures demand the improved characteristics of the roads and the improvement of the of the
binder properties. In the flexible roads constructions, bitumen plays an important role of the
binding the aggregated by coating over the aggregates. It helps in improving the road strength
through its water resistance is very poor. The common method that can be used to improve the
quality of the bitumen is through modifying it through blending it with organic and synthetic
polymers like plastics and rubbers.
Polymer modified bitumen is emerging as the important construction material for the roads and
have advantages like being a pollution menace and this process help solve the pollution because
most of the plastic wastes are polymers. Extensive research is being done in recent decades on
usage of polymers in road construction due to ever-increasing traffic conditions and failure of
conventional road materials due to high traffic density and in extreme weather conditions
Polymers can be directly mixed with the existing materials present at the site during the road
construction to stabilize these roads. These polymers can also be used to improve the properties
of bitumen or aggregates used in asphalt road construction
1.1 Background research about types of polymers used in road construction
Elastomers is one of the most common polymers used in asphalt road products around the world
Most common elastomers include synthetic thermoplastic rubber polymers, such as SBS, styrene
butadiene rubber (SBR), styrene ethylene butadiene styrene (SEBS) and polybutadiene rubber
(PB).
 Reclaimed tyre rubber is used to improve deformation resistance
 Sulphur and thermoplastic polymers are used to the workability and deformation
resistance of the asphalt
 Thermoplastic elastomers improve setting systems fatigue characteristics overall health
and resistance of the product
1.2 Background study on Bitumen
Polymers can be used to improve the properties of bitumen, aggregates and to strengthen the
subsurface layers of the roads
For this research, we are going to look at polymer usage in bitumen modification
Bitumen is a by-product of petroleum. It is mainly used as the binder for aggregates in road
construction because it is durable and is hoped. It is a soft and thermoplastic material and the
viscosity is directly proportional to the temperature. It is available almost throughout the world
and is economical
Use of bitumen for various purposes dates to ancient civilizations and is also described as
"mankind's oldest engineering material" but increase in usage and production of the commercial

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 4
was not found until the early 19th century. Demand for bitumen increased drastically due to the
production of motorized vehicles.
Today bitumen is used almost for all the major road constructions around the world.
Urbanization, demand, Rapid development and the ever-increasing traffic conditions lead failure
of bitumen in many aspects. This paved the way for bitumen modification, In consideration of
increased traffic loads and in order to improve pavement performance, polymer-modified
asphalts (PMA) have been developed during the last few decade (Lau, 2017)
2.0 Types of polymers
2.1 Thermoplastic elastomers
 Styrene–butadiene–styrene (SBS)
 Styrene–butadiene–rubber (SBR)
 Styrene–isoprene–styrene (SIS)
 Styrene–ethylene–butadiene–styrene (SEBS)
 Ethylene–propylene–diene terpolymer (EPDM)
 Isobutene–isoprene copolymer (IIR)
 Natural rubber
 Crumb tyre rubber
 Polybutadiene (PBD)
 Polyisoprene
2.2 Thermoplastic polymers
 Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)
 Ethylene methyl acrylate (EMA)
 Ethylene butyl acrylate (EBA)
 Atactic polypropylene (APP)
 Polyethylene (PE)
 Polypropylene (PP)
 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
 Polystyrene (PS)
2.3 Thermosetting polymers
 Epoxy resin
 Polyurethane resin
 Acrylic resin
 Phenolic resin
Some of the properties improved by using the above additives in bitumen mixes are
 Setting time
 Durability
 Elasticity
 Fatigue

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 5
 Resistance to deformation etc
Polymer coated aggregate (PCA) is also another type of polymer used in road construction where
the aggregates are coated with polymers to increase their binding property.

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 6
3.0 Literature review:
The two main types of polymers used in bitumen modification are plastometers and
thermoplastic plastometers. During the last 40 years, more and more researchers began to
concentrate on polymer modification of bitumen and a rapidly increasing number of research
articles have been published since the 1970s. In these, the various investigated polymers
included elastomers (e.g. polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), ethylene–vinyl acetate (EVA),
ethylene–butyl acrylate (EBA)) and thermoplastic elastomers (e.g. styrene–butadiene–styrene
(SBS), styrene–isoprene–styrene (SIS), and styrene–ethylene/butylene–styrene (SEBS))
These Polymers were reported to lead to some improved properties of bitumen, such as higher
stiffness at high temperatures, higher cracking resistance at low temperatures, better moisture
resistance or longer fatigue life (Hollaway, 2016)
Along with the advantages of Polymer modified bitumen researchers also found many
disadvantages and drawbacks in using polymers for bitumen modification including high cost,
some PMBs' high-temperature sensitivity, low ageing resistance, poor storage stability and the
limited improvement in elasticity. In this, the combination of bitumen oxidation and polymer
degradation was reported to cause polymer modified bitumen's ageing propensity (Akovalı,
2012) which seems especially challenging for some unsaturated polymers, e.g. SBS. Other
defects such as poor storage stability, the effect of chemical structure and reactivity of polymers
on compatibility with bitumen, were also discovered.
Et Burak Sengoz published in his paper about Construction and Building materials on September
2008. In his has, he presented a laboratory study about the modified bitumen when mixed with
Styrene butadiene styrene (SBS) and ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA). A 50/70 proportion of
bitumen was mixed with SBS and EVA. Also, the mechanical properties were studied about the
hot-mix asphalt (HMA) including the base bitumen. The results showed that the properties of
modified bitumen's and also the mechanical properties change as per the type of polymer and its
content. When the proportion of polymer was low, the sample showed the existence of dispersed
polymer particles in a continuous bitumen phase. Whereas, at higher proportions of the polymer
a continuous phase polymer phase was observed. The paper concluded saying that the use of
SBS and EVA in the bitumen improves the properties of the bitumen such as; penetration,
softening point, temperature susceptibility, etc. It was also concluded that the mechanical
properties of HMA prepared with the SBS PMB samples such as Marshall Stability were
enhanced with the increasing polymer contents (Creese, 2010)
3.1 Thermoplastic elastomers
Is referred to thermoplastic rubbers and is a class of copolymers where rubber mix physically
with plastic and consist of materials both elastomeric and thermoplastic properties.
Thermoplastic is easily used in injection moulding and show benefits of both material soft plastic
and rubber. The benefit of using thermoplastic elastomers is its stretching ability to moderate

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 7
elongations and return to its original shape creating a better physical range of longer life than
other materials.
The material of thermoplastic elastomers has the potential to be recyclable because they can be
molded, reused and extruded like plastics. They require little compounding without the need of
the adding reinforcing agents, cure systems or stabilizers, therefore, variations from batch to
batch in metering and weighing components are absent leading to improved consistency in both
fabricated articles and raw materials. Thermal plastic elastomers have material stability and
thermal properties when exposed to non-polar materials and broad range of temperatures and
also they consume less energy to produce (Hansen, 2013)
3.1.1Styrene–butadiene–styrene (SBS)
Currently, SBS block copolymer is the most commonly used polymer for bitumen modification
around the world.
Definition
SBS is a physical and cross-linking three-dimensional network of molecules of polystyrene and
poly butadiene. While styrene gives the strength butadiene gives viscous properties to the SBS. It
describes the families of synthetic rubber derived from butadiene and styrene. They have the
ability of good ageing and when protected by additives. Its properties are Mooney viscosity,
glass transition temperature, polydispersity, tensile length and elongation at the tear.
It is used in the building application as binding and sealing agents. It offers the durability and
reduced shrinkage and increased flexibility and also is resistant to the emulsion in the dump
conditions. It is used as the cement basement of waterproofing systems where a liquid is mixed
with water to form the gauging solution for mixing the tanking powdered materials to a slurry
(Gianluca Dell'Acqua, 2013).
Advantages
 Compatibility
 Resistance
 Life expectancy
 Adhesion
 Ease of maintenance
Current testing & Field trials
SBS binders are complex materials which can deliver enhanced properties and field
performance. However, it they are not formulated and used correctly field failures can result.
(India, 2012) Stated in his research that slow cooling, as occurs during asphalt transport and
placement, can result in SBS forming irregular globules in the compacted asphalt as observed in
many field trials. They also gave an account on how binder/bitumen morphology can change
these properties and different bitumen’s behave differently

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 8
Due to lower mixing and compaction temperatures, the PMA mixtures might result in several
problems such as inadequate volumetric properties (i.e., high air voids) and poor short-term and
long-term performance. From late 1993 until early 1995, many Australian road contractors
reported unacceptably high levels of “fume” evolution during placement when PMA binders
were used. Health problems described by some road crews, presumably caused by the fumes,
included vomiting, nausea, headaches, sore throats and sore eyes. Most of the problems were
observed to be experienced when the SBS was used as a modifier (T., 2007).
Improvements
 Less temperature susceptibility
 Penetration point
 Storage stability
 Softening point
 Change of mass
3.1.2 Styrene–butadiene–rubber (SBR)
Styrene–butadiene–rubber (SBR) has been widely used as a binder modifier, usually as a
dispersion in water (latex). An Engineering Brief from 1987 available at the US Federal Aviation
Administration website describes the benefits of SBR modified asphalt in improving the
properties of bituminous concrete pavement and seal coats.
Improvements
 Low-temperature ductility
 Viscosity
 Elastic recovery
 Adhesive
 Cohesive properties
The benefit of latex is that the rubber particles are extremely small and regular. When they are
exposed to asphalt during mixing they disperse rapidly and uniformly throughout the material
and form a reinforcing network structure.
According to Becker et al., SBR latex polymers increase the ductility of asphalt pavement, which
allows the pavement to be more flexible and crack resistant at low temperatures, as found by the
Florida Department of Transportation. SBR modification also increases elasticity, improves
adhesion and cohesion, and reduces the rate of oxidation, which helps to compensate for
hardening and ageing problems.
Testing and field trials
In a 1999 laboratory test at the Texas Transportation Institute, it was found that coating smooth,
rounded, siliceous gravel aggregates with cement plus SBR latex for use in HMA increased
stability according to Hveem and Marshall standards, as well as tensile strength, resilient
modulus and resistance to moisture damage. Coated aggregates have greater resistance to rutting
and cracking.

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 9
Water-based SBR latex has been widely used to improve chip retention in emulsions, but SBS
has gradually replaced latex because of its effect of greater tensile strength at strain, and because
it is compatible with a broader range of asphalt. Elastomers such as SBR and SBS have a
significant effect on the results of the ductility test at both 4 and 25 °C; while SBR modified
asphalts have high ductility at all temperatures, SBS modified asphalts tend to have lower
ductility.
3.1.3 Styrene Isoprene styrene
Styrene-butadiene and styrene-isoprene block copolymers (SBR), also known as styrene-
butadiene-styrene (SBS) and styrene-isoprene-styrene (of polystyrene sequences (or blocks) at
each end of a molecular chain and a butadiene or isoprene sequence in the centre. SBS and SIS
are thermoplastic elastomers, blends that exhibit both the elasticity and resilience of butadiene
rubber or isoprene rubber (natural rubber) and the ability of polystyrene to be molded and shaped
under the influence of heat (Britain, 2015).
In the production of SBS and SIS, styrene and either butadiene or isoprene are polymerized (their
single-unit molecules linked together to form long, chainlike, multiple-unit molecules) under the
action of anionic initiators. Various polymerization procedures are followed, including building
up a styrene chain, adding on butadiene or isoprene units to form a diblock copolymer, and then
linking two diblock chains to form the triblock copolymer. In the final solidified product the
polystyrene end-blocks of adjacent chains collect together in small domains so that clusters of
hard, thermoplastic polystyrene are distributed through a network of rubbery polybutadiene or
polyisoprene (Hollaway, 2010).
Like all thermoplastic elastomers, SBS and SIS are less resilient than permanently interlinked
vulcanized rubber, and they do not recover as efficiently from deformation. Also, they soften and
flow as the glass-transition temperature (the temperature below which the molecules are locked
in a rigid, glassy state) of polystyrene (about 100 °C [212 °F]) is approached, and they are
completely dissolved (and not merely softened) by suitable liquids. Nevertheless, SBS and SIS
are easily processed and reprocessed, owing to the thermoplastic properties of polystyrene, and
they are remarkably strong at room temperature. They are frequently used for injection-molded
parts, as hot-melt adhesives (especially in shoes), and as an additive to improve the properties of
bitumen.
Improvements
 Impact strength
 Ductility
 Melting peak
 Improved low-temperature performance
3.1.4 Natural rubber
Natural rubber or isoprene latex is used as an additive from a long time and is one of the first
material mentioned in the earliest patents. It is still being used today in water-based emulsion
applications such as micro surfacing. Mixing the rubber components in widely differing

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 10
proportions, heating and reacting them will result in a binder which can be used in a very wide
variety of areas in road construction, industry and waterproofing of engineering structures.
Rubber has unique chemical and physical characteristics like they are susceptible to
vulcanization and sensitive to cracking of ozone because of the double bond in every unit. It has
a strong and unpleasant smell, and can also be used to prevent coagulation of raw latex. The
flexibility of rubbers in appealing in rollers and tires for many devices and its elasticity ales of
good for many types of shock absorbers and for the mounting of specialized machinery to reduce
vibrations (Mouton, 2013)
Advantages of natural rubber
Its market application has variety
Has low flexibility of temperature
Has good ageing qualities and heat resistance
Improvements
Draining capacity
Improved rut performance
Reduced traffic noise
Flexibility
Improved fatigue
3.2 Thermoplastic polymers:
It is a moldable polymer that is at a specific temperature and solid when cooled. Most of the
thermoplastic materials have high weight of the molecules, the chains of polymers combine
through forces of intermolecular which becomes weak frequently with the increased temperature,
producing a viscous liquid thus they can be heated to reshape them and used to produce parts by
techniques of processing polymers like injection molding, extrusion and compression molding
(Nemerow, 2010).
3.2.1Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA)
EVA is a copolymer of ethylene and vinyl acetate. The inclusion of the vinyl acetate is used to
decrease the crystallinity of the ethylene structure and can help make the plastomer more
compatible with the bitumen
EVA based polymers are classified as the elastomer that modifies bitumen by forming a tough,
rigid, three-dimensional network to resist deformation. Their characteristics lie between those of
low-density polyethylene, semi-rigid, translucent product and those of a transparent and rubbery
material similar to plasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and certain types of rubbers. This type
of polymers have revealed as good modifiers which improve permanent deformation and thermal
cracking

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 11
Improvements
 Softening point temperature
 Penetration
 Torsional recovery
 Toughness tenacity
 Impact strength
Current testing and field trials
The thermal stability and properties of ageing of ethyl vinyl acetate have been investigated in the
support of assessment of shelf life and also to identify the conditions of the storage that may
extend product life in construction. These resins are normally used in the adhesives production
for the specialized application either binders for filler particles or to reduce the movement of
materials in multi-materials assembly. The study shows that both resins are susceptible to
hydrolysis and moisture which limit the shelf time. The ethyl vinyl acetate accumulates acetic
acid through hydrolysis of the acetate groups which increases the acidity of the material
constructed (Mertz, 2017).
The sensitivity in temperature and kinetic was used to identify shelf life which is useful in the
normal representative storage conditions. In the separate experimental set, the short term ageing
studies accelerated by thermal was carried out on ethyl vinyl acetate to investigate the sensitivity
of temperature and humidity. The study shows that material is hygroscopic and ready to
accumulate moisture is susceptible to scission of chain with changes in molecular weight linked
to the equilibrium of hydrolysis esterification. These changes do not impact strength of adhesive
bonds allowing the resin to be used beyond the manufacturer recommended limit of shelf time
(Board, 2016).
3.2.2 Polypropylene
Polypropylene fibres also provide three-dimensional reinforcement of the concrete. In asphalt
concrete, there is a reaction between the hot aggregate and the cold polypropylene fibres when
mixed together for a suitable period before adding hot bitumen to this blend and obtaining the
asphalt mixture (dry process). The ‘sticking' of polypropylene fibres with the aggregate–bitumen
matrix forms a completely new generation of paving products. Although this is not a totally new
technique (Ministry of Environment and Forests, 2014), using multifilament 3 mm long fibres
(M-03 type) in pavement engineering applications is a new concept.
Polypropylene fibres have been used officially as a modifier for asphalt concrete in the United
States. The Ohio State Department of Transportation (ODOT) has published a standard for the
use of polypropylene fibres in high-performance asphalt concrete (Ohio Department of
Transportation 1998). ın this standard, detailed instructions are provided on the production,
laying out and compaction of asphalt concrete composed of aggregates, bitumen and
polypropylene fibres.

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 12
The fibres are required to meet the requirements stated in Table 6.1. Based on the extensive
research carried out by the Ohio Department of Transportation, the polypropylene fibres should
be added to the asphalt mix in a ratio of approximately 3.0 kg/ton. However, this ratio can be
adjusted in order to satisfy the desired mechanical properties of the asphalt pavement. For
mixtures incorporating polypropylene fibres, the mixing temperature should not exceed 143°c
(290°F) (Sukhareva, 2014).
The properties of polypropylene are translucent, good resistance to chemical, good resistance to
fatigue, tough, good resistance to heat and temperature, integral hinge property, lower density
and semi-rigid. Some of the identified disadvantages are oxidative degradation accelerated by
materials like copper, thermal expansion, the poor resistance of Ultraviolet, high shrinkage of
mould and high creep.
3.2.3 Polyethylene (PE)
Polyethylene, the most popular plastic used in the world. It is very light in weight and has a very
simple molecular structure. Its molecular structure basically consists of a chain of carbon atoms
attached to hydrogen atoms. It is semi-crystalline material have excellent wear resistance, good
chemical resistance and fatigue. There are ways in which polypropylene can be used, either in
high densities or in low. Following are some of the advantages studied earlier when it is used in
the following proportions.
 High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE): When used in right proportions, this polymer
offers excellent resistance to impact, they are light in weight, very high tensile strength,
and, they absorb very low moisture thus leaving the bitumen in a good condition which
can last longer.
 Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE): This polymer when used in low proportions offers
low moisture permeability and also have are corrosion resistance. This polymer can be
used in situations where corrosion resistance is important whereas, tensile strength,
stiffness and the temperatures don't matter a lot.
 Ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene: is very tough and a chemical resistant used to
manufacture moving machines, gears, bearings, and some vests of bulletproof.
 Medium density polyethylene: I used in packing sacks, films, fittings and gas pipes
Sample preparation:
Bituminous content in the sample: - 5.4%
Number of samples- 84
Samples tested by adding LDPE: 42
Samples tested by adding HDPE: 42
Procedure: - The samples were added in eight proportions of polyethylene (6, 8, 10,12,14,16
and 18%). Out of these samples, three samples were tested for stability, flow for LDPE/HDPE
proportion and unit weight. Samples were added in two proportions, ground and un-grinded. The
testing was done in two parts, one with the inclusion of grinded PE while other with the use of

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 13
non-grinded PE. The bitumen is set to heat till it reached 160-180 degree Celsius. This
temperature was selected because this temperature is ideal for the PE particles to melt and it
would stick to the aggregate surfaces leaving the textured PE surface with adhesion between
coated aggregates.
Results: - The results were obtained for various tests conducted and in the end, it was seen that
the HDPE shows more stable and good results as compared to LDPE. Whereas, it was also seen
that when grinded PE is used the physical properties of the by-product are far better than the
ungrinded samples. (T., 2007)
3.2.4 Polyvinyl Chloride: -
PVC is the most common plastic material widely used in the construction industry. It can be
molded in any shape because of its flexible properties, it can be rigid and it can also be flexible.
43% of PVC’s molecular weight is derived from hydrocarbons whereas 57% is derived from
common salt.
The production process of PVC: -
The entire process is conducted in 5 stages:
1. Extracting salt and hydrocarbon resources.
2. These resources are then used in the production of ethylene and chloride.
3. The chloride and ethylene which is formed are then combined to make a monomer called
as vinyl chloride monomer (VCM).
4. VCM is then polymerised to make polyvinyl chloride.
5. The by-product obtained, PVC is then mixed with other products to test its physical
properties.
Tests conducted on PVC and observations:
A). Moisture absorption: When PVC is coated to the aggregate, it decreases its porosity thus
creating fewer voids than before.
B). Soundness test: When plastic is coated to the aggregate, it actually didn't show any weight
loss which in return improving the quality of the aggregate (Lloyd H. Hihara, 2012).
Process for manufacturing bitumen mix road using waste plastic:
A). Dry process: In this process, the hot stone aggregate (170^0 C) is mixed with hot bitumen
(160^o). The bitumen is chosen on its binding properties, penetration, and viscoelastic
properties. Whereas, the aggregate is chosen on porosity, moisture absorption capacity. When the
bitumen is coated with PVC it helps in decreasing the porosity creating fewer voids in the
mixture. Also, the moisture absorption capacity increases. (Tayde, 2012)
Advantages:
1. Recycling of plastics.
2. The binding property doubles up.
3. No equipment is required.

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 14
4. Bonding of the bitumen is stronger than normal.
5. Can be used in all types of climates.
Disadvantages:
1. The process is applicable to plastic wastes only.
B). Wet Process:
Waste plastic is ground and made into powder; 6 to 8 % plastic is mixed with the bitumen.
Plastic increases the melting point of the bitumen and makes the road retain its flexibility during
winters resulting in its long life. Use of shredded plastic waste acts as a strong "binding agent"
for tar making the asphalt last long. By mixing plastic with bitumen, the ability of the bitumen to
withstand high-temperature increases. The plastic waste is melted and mixed with bitumen in a
ratio. Normally, blending takes place when the temperature reaches 45.5o C but when plastic is
mixed, it remains stable even at 55o C. The vigorous tests at the laboratory level proved that the
bituminous concrete mixes prepared using the treated bitumen binder fulfilled all the specified
Marshall mix design criteria for the surface course of road pavement. There was a substantial
increase in Marshall Stability value of the mix, of the order of two to three time's higher value in
comparison with the untreated or ordinary bitumen. Another important observation was that the
bituminous mixes prepared using the treated binder could withstand adverse soaking conditions
under water for the longer duration (Technology, 2013).
Advantages:
1. Can be used for any waste material of any shape, plastic or rubber.
Disadvantages:
1. It is a lengthy process.
2. Heavy mechanical equipment is required.
3. Maximum 8% of plastic waste can be added.
3.3 Thermosetting polymers:
It is cured irreversibly of the resin, liquid prepolymer and soft solid. The curing process changes
the resin into insoluble, and infusible network of polymer and is increased by the heat action of
appropriate emission under high force or by mixing catalysts. Resins of thermosets are normally
malleable before curing and are planned to be formed into their last shape or used as the

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 15
adhesives. Others are molding compounds used in integrated circuits and semiconductors. After
it has hardened a rein of the thermostat cannot be heated again and melted to be shaped
differently (Lau, 2014).
Thermostat plastic polymers are characterized by structures of three dimensions, rigid, high
molecular weight, when deformed stays out of shape, and underwent permanent or plastic
deformation under load and usually decompose before melting thermoset elastomers that are
soft, rubbery and springy can be reverted and deformed to their original shape on releasing
loading and decompose before melting. Conventional thermoset elastomers cannot be reshaped
and melted after incurring which means that they cannot be recycled except as filter material.
Methods of molding thermostat include injection molding, compression molding, spin casting,
and extrusion molding (Sengoz, September 2008).
Properties
Thermosetting polymers are normally stronger than materials of thermoplastic because of their
three-dimensional bond networks and also are suitable for high temperatures applications up to
temperatures of decomposition because they keep the shape as covalent bonds which are strong
between the polymers cannot be broken easily. The higher the density of cross-link and content
of aromatics of the polymer thermoset the higher the resistance to degradation of heat and attack
to chemicals. Hardness and mechanical strength also improve density of the cross link at an
expense of brittleness (Santvoort, 2011).
Polyester resin is synthetic resins not saturated and is formed by the reaction of polyhydric
alcohol and organic or dibasic acids. They are used in compound moulding sheet, the compound
of bulk moulding. Polyester resins in thermosetting cure exothermically. The use of excess
initiator with the catalyst can cause charming or ignition during the process of curing and
catalysts in excess may fracture the products or a rubber material (Tayde, 2012).
Advantages of polyester resin
Water and chemical resistance, resistance to ageing and weathering, low cost, the polymer can
withstand high temperatures, it has a good glass fibre wetting and shrinks during curing.
Polyimide is the polymer of the monomer of imide, and enjoy applications in roles demanding
high temperature, displays, fuel cells and other military roles. It is produced by the reaction
between diamine and dianhydrid and reaction between diisocyanate and dianhydride (Mouton,
2014).
Properties of polyimide

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 16
Thermosetting polyimides are known for good resistance from chemical, thermal stability
excellent properties of mechanics, and yellow/orange colour. Polyimides compounded with
glass fibre or graphite have more strength, they exhibit high tensile strength and low creep. They
are not affected by the use of oil solvent like esters, alcohol and hydrocarbons and resist weak
acid. They are used as high-temperature adhesives, for insulation and flexible cables.
Silicones: include synthetic inert compounds made of repeating units of siloxane. They are heat
resistant and use in lubricants, adhesives, and sealants.
Properties
Low thermal conductivity, low toxicity, the low reaction of the chemical. The high permeability
of gas, thermal stability, do not support the growth of microorganisms, ability to repel water,
resistance to UV and oxygen.
3.4 Application of polymers
Which type of polymers to be used and when stating its advantages and properties.
As roads move away from bitumen, polymers allow the production of polymer modified roads.
The same products can be used in the creation of roads through stabilization of soil,
reinforcement of asphalt and dust control. Polymers modify bitumen is used because of its better
performance but when in the case where percentages of polymer bitumen blend are higher, the
blend is more dispersion in bitumen which gets separated on cooling. Polymer modified bitumen
has been used for a very long time to give better performances of the of bituminous mixes, they
are being used because of the increase in traffics and also they are better resistance to the
variation of temperature in the high temperature during summer and low temperature in winter.
Modification of the polymers applied to road construction is better resistance to fatigue cracking
and rutting, resistance to the ageing bitumen and improves the properties of low temperature
(Abdel-Mohsen Onsy Mohamed, 2013).
Blend of bitumen and polymer is a good than using bitumen that is pure and plain. Blending the
polymers with bitumen has improved the softening point and also reduced the value of
penetration with perfect ductility and when it is used to construct roads, it can withstand the load
and higher temperatures. The coating of polymers reduces porosity, improves soundness and
moisture absorption. The coated polymer aggregates the bitumen mix and form better
construction material and used in road construction because of its good performance (Acton,
2010).
The most common polymers applicable in soil stabilization is acrylic and vinyl acetate based
copolymers. Both of these types of polymers are hydrophobic and showed good bonding
efficiency in the range of soil and are designed to trap the particles of soil. Polymer roads proved
the stability of the base layer and subsoil stabilizer. The corporation of the copolymer allows for
the subsurface of long-lasting, decreasing the resistance and increasing the performance also
elasticity of the surface will increase that prohibit the potholes formation, swelling and cracks.
Traffic load and frequency, the life span of road and maintenance are factors to be considered

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 17
when designing the road and aggregates of soil need to be tested to determine the capacity of
building loads bearing roads. Apart from the road, the polymers are applicable in many fields
like medicine, industries, automobile and others (Akovalı, 2012).
By using the polymer in road construction, the construction costs are reduced and also increase
the performance of road and stabilization, stability, durability, prevent penetration of water,
reduces potholes and ensure the safety of roads. Products of polymers are biodegradable and are
carbon friendly compared to other methods of road constructions. Hence polymers provides
green, cost-effective solution, environmentally friendly, and nontoxic economy (Board, 2016)
4.0 Results & Discussions
Polymer modified bitumen has been used from a long time to give high performance to the
bituminous. Polymers are better in the use of road construction because of better resistance to the
variation of temperature, higher temperatures in hot summer and lower temperatures in cold
winter. Advantages of polymer modifications include better resistance to the ageing bitumen,
better resistance to the cracking fatigue, improve properties of low temperatures and resistance to
cracking and rutting, and improve sensitivity to temperature. Lower sensitivity to the polymer
modified bitumen means higher stiffness in the summer high temperatures and lower stiffness in
lower winter temperatures (Britain, 2015).
The best polymer out of the three types which is the best for road construction is thermoplastic
elastomer polymer because it has met the objective of the research. its properties include:
resistance to chemical: bases and acids don’t react with thermoplastic elastomer which makes it
preferred for road construction, Toughness and elasticity: thermoplastic elastomer act with
springiness over a deflection range but can experience early distortion of material in the process
of deformation, this makes it good for road construction since they cannot break. Fatigue and
resistance: thermoplastic elastomers retain their shapes after torsion, bending, and flexing.
Transmissivity: thermoplastic elastomer is usually formed to be opaque in colour. They can be
used in an application where the transfer of light is important for Insulation: they are resistance
to electricity (Cousins, 2014).
Thermoplastic such as polypropylene dissolve hence permits them to inject molding easily and
then subsequently recycled. In the modified process plastic, is aggregately coated and help in
binding with bitumen due to increased area for the compact with the polymer and bitumen. This
prevents the oxidation and absorption of moisture of bitumen by air entrapped and has reduced
formation of potholes, raveling and rutting (Imad L. Al-Qadi, 2015). The roads made of the
polymer can show better durability and withstand heavy traffics. The importance of polymer in
road construction is: reduce the need of bitumen, reduces costs, avoid plastic disposal by landfill
and incineration, creates jobs, develop eco-friendly technology, increase the performance and
strength of the roads. Polymers can be directly mixed with the existing materials present at the

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 18
site during the road construction to stabilize these roads and improve the properties of bitumen or
aggregates used in asphalt road construction. Polymers can be used to improve the properties of
bitumen, aggregates and to strengthen the subsurface layers of the roads. The two main types of
polymers used in bitumen modification are plastometers and thermoplastic plastometers (Creese,
2010).
Generation of plastics wastes is increasing daily and the main polymers like polypropylene,
polyethylene. And polystyrene shows properties of adhesion in the state of molten. Plastic will
increase the melting point of bitumen and form the best material for the road construction since
the mix have the higher marshal value of stability, hence the best way of constructing road is by
using the polymers to reduce pollution of plastics (Halliwell, 2012). The use of innovative
technologies strengthened roads and increase the road life too and will help improve the
environment and also has created a source of income to the works and constructors through the
creation of jobs. Roads made of polymers would be advantageous for the places with the hot
humid climate where the temperature crosses 50degeree Celsius frequently and torrential rains
that create havoc leaving the roads with potholes. It is hoped that in future there will be strong,
eco-friendly and durable roads that will relieve environment from the waste of plastic (D. R.
Gershkoff, 2011).
By using the polymer in road construction, the construction costs are reduced and also increases
the performance of road and stabilization, stability, durability, prevent penetration of water,
reduces potholes and ensure the safety of roads. Products of polymers are biodegradable and are
carbon friendly compared to other methods of road constructions. Hence polymers provide
green, cost-effective solution, environmentally friendly, and nontoxic economy. Polymers
enhance the properties of the bitumen to be the low absorption of water, creep, fatigue, and good
thermal expansion (DIANE, 2015).they cannot be heated and melted to be shaped differently.
Thermosetting polymers
It is cured irreversibly of the resin, liquid prepolymer and soft solid. The curing process changes
the resin into insoluble, and infusible network of polymer and is increased by the heat action of
appropriate emission under high force or by mixing catalysts. Resins of thermosets are normally
malleable before curing and are planned to be formed into their last shape or used as the
adhesives. Others are molding compounds used in integrated circuits and semiconductors. After
it has hardened a rein of the thermostat cannot be heated again and melted to be shaped

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 19
Curing of the resin of thermoset transform it to elastomers by crosslinking the extension of chain
through covalent bond formation between the polymer chains. The density of crosslinking vary
depending on the mix of the prepolymer and the crosslinking mechanisms. Acrylic resins, vinyl
esters and polyesters with unsaturated sites on the backbone are linked by the copolymerization
with the diluents of unsaturated monomer, with cure initiated by generated free radicles from
ionizing the thermal decomposition, photolytic, or ionizing radiator of the radical initiator, the
crosslinking intensity is influenced by the backbone degree of the prepolymer unsaturation
(Sengoz, September 2008).
Epoxy functional resins can be homo polymerized with heat or catalysts of cation or anion, or
copolymerized through the addition of nucleophyllic reaction with the multifunctional groups
linking agents also known as curing agent or hardeners. As the reaction precedes, larger
molecules are produced and structures that are highly branched are formed. The curing rate is
influenced by the functionality of the epoxy resins and physical form and curing agents. When
the temperature is elevated in posturing induces secondary backbone crosslinking hydroxyl
functionality to form other bonds after condensing (Dirk Meissner, 2016).
Polyurethanes formed when combination of prepolymer and isocyanate resins occurs with high
or high Polyols of high molecular weight, which strict stoichiometry ratios that are essential to
control the addition of nucleophyllic polymerization, the degree of crosslinking and the physical
type results are adjusted from the functionality of the isocyanate resins and molecular weight,
prepolymer and the combination of triols, dials and Polyols selected. The reaction rate is
influenced by inhibitors and catalysts: polyureas form practically instantaneously when resins of
isocyanate are combined with functional polyether and polyester with long chain amine and the
extended of Low-Density diamine of the short chain. The addition of the nucleophyllic
isocyanate reaction don’t need catalysts also polyureas are produced when resins of isocyanate
come into contact with the moisture (Doble, 2015).
Amino, phenolic and furan resin all cure by the polycondensation involving the water and heat
release with the initiating cure and control of exothermic polymerization influenced by the
temperature of the curing, selection of the catalysts and methods of processing degree of pressure
of pre- polymerization and the content of residual hydroxymenthyl in the resin determine the
degree of crosslinking (Tayde, 2012).
Thermoset plastics polymers characterized by the structures being rigid, three dimensions, and
high molecular weight, stays from the shape when underwent permanent and deformed or
deformation of plastic under load and usually decompose them before melting. Elastomers of
thermoset that are springy and soft can be deformed and revert to their shape again on releasing
load and has after decomposition. Convectional thermoset cannot be melted and reshaped after
curing that implies that they cannot be recycled for the same importance except the materials of
fillers. There are developments, however, involving resins of epoxy thermoset when under
controlled heating form the cross-linked network that can be reshaped by glass silica through
reversible reactions of covalent bonds on reheating above the transition temperature (Ekolu,
2013).

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 20
Mixtures of the thermosetting polymers based on the resin monomers of thermosetting and
prepolymer can be formulated by the process applied in many ways to create cure properties that
cannot be achieved by inorganic materials and thermosetting polymers.
Application of thermosetting polymers
Application process that uses the thermosets polymers are: construction of civil engineering
grouts for injection and jointing, protective coating, seamless flooring, foundry sands, motors,
sealants, adhesives, insulation of electric, encapsulation, solid foams, printing and lamination,
winding filaments, and molding (Ekolu, 2013)
The specific method of thermoset molding include; extrusion molding, spin casting, reactive
injection molding, and compression molding.
Properties
Thermosetting plastics are normally stronger than thermoplastic materials because of a network
of bonds in their dimension is better for the applications of high temperature up to the
decomposition’s temperature because they keep their shape rigid and strong as covalent bonds in
their chain cannot be broken easily. The higher the density of crosslinking and the content of
aromatic thermoset polymer, the greater the resistance to heat degradation. Hardness and
mechanical strength improve the density of crosslinking but at the brittleness expense (Enric
Vázquez, 2013).
Thermoplastic polymers
The thermoplastic polymer is material that is moldable above a certain temperature and when
cooled it solidifies. Most of the thermoplastic polymers have high molecular weight. The chain
of the polymer is associated with the intermolecular force with increased temperature producing
the viscous liquid. Thermoplastic polymers can be heated to reshape them and are used to
produce techniques of processing polymers like compression molding, injection molding and
extrusion. Thermoplastic polymers form chemical bonds that are not revisable during the process
of curing and when heated cannot melt and don’t deform on cooling though they decompose
(Enric Vázquez, 2013).
Above the temperature of the glass transition and below the point of melting, physical
characteristics of the thermoplastic polymers changed without the phase change. Some of the
thermoplastic polymers don’t crystallize below the temperatures above the glass transition and
hence retain the characteristics of the amorphous. The plastic of amorphous and semi-amorphous
is used when the clarity of optical is important as light scattered larger than its wavelength by
crystallites. The plastics are resistant to environmental cracking and chemical because they don't
have the crystalline structure (Technology, 2013).
Brittles can be reduced with plasticizers addition which raises the mobility of chain of
amorphous segments to lower the temperature of the glass transition. Polymers modification
through copolymerization or non-reactive side chain addition to the monomers before
polymerization can also lower the temperature above the glass transition. Before the strategies
were used, automobile parts of plastics would crack when exposed to low temperature. These are

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 21
slightly and linear molecules of branched long chain able to repeat softening when heated and
hardened when cooled (Francis, 2014).
Properties of thermoplastic polymers
Chemical resistance: diluted bases and acids don't react with thermoplastic elastomers which
makes it good for road construction Toughness and elasticity: thermoplastic elastomers act with
elasticity over a range of deflection but can expe6415314rience early deformation of material on
the process of deformation, this makes it good for road construction since they cannot break.
Fatigue and resistance: thermoplastic elastomers retain their shapes after torsion, bending, and
flexing (Wardlaw, 2015). Transmissivity: thermoplastic elastomers are normally produced to be
opaque in colour. They can be used in supplication where light transfer is important Insulation:
thermoplastic elastomer like polypropylene has a very high resistance to electricity They can be
hearted to their melting point, cooled, and reheated again without degradation Thermoplastic like
polypropylene liquefy that allows them to inject molding easily and then subsequently recycled
(Francis, 2014).
4.1 Summary table;
Styrene butadiene block polymers have gradually replaced the usage of rubber and latex in
bitumen modification as they show better results in properties like tensile strength impact
strength, resistance to extreme temperatures etc. these factors play a huge role in compatibility of
the polymer with the bitumen ultimately deciding the field performance of the modified asphalt.
The table 1 and table 2 below shows the summary table of the type of polymers, categories of the
polymers, Characteristics, Advantages, and Disadvantages (G.J. Senden, 2014).
Types of polymer characteristics Improvement cost Comments and summery
Thermoplastic
elastomer
Have a high life
expectancy
Its resistance to
heat, temperature,
and chemical is
very high
It will improve the
road brittleness
$32 Thermoplastic elastomers are
good technologies for
improvements as far as road
constructions are concerned
Thermoplastic
polymers
It is tough
It is vicious
It's resistance to
heat and chemicals
It will improve the
deformation
Strength and
toughness of the
road
Water seepage will
not be present
$18 Thermoplastic materials
prevent rainwater from heated
from the surface hence is
cross-link in areas prone to
floods and also prevent sinking
of road surface
Thermosetting
polymers
It is strong than
thermoplastic
materials
Have covalent
bond in their
structures
It improves the
strength, durability
and compatibility
of the road
$18
The roads made from
thermosetting polymers are
very strong because of the
covalent bond ion its structures

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 22
Types of polymer Categories of polymer
types
Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages
Thermoplastic
elastomer
Styrene butadiene styrene Viscous
Good aging
Softening point
Changes in mass
High storage ability
Less temperature
susceptibility
Compatibility
Life expectancy
Adhesion
Resistance
Expensive
Difficult to maintain
More equipment needed
Styrene butadiene rubber High ability of
storage
Good aging
Low-temperature
ductility
High cost
Difficult to maintain
More equipment needed
Styrene isoprene styrene Low performance is
improved
Ductility
High melting peak
Impact strength.
improved low
performance of
temperature
ductility
High cost
Difficult to maintain
More equipment needed
Natural rubber Variety of market
application
Heat resistance and
good aging qualities
Reduced traffic noise
Flexible
Improved
performance
Draining capacity
High creep
Difficult to maintain
More equipment needed
Thermoplastic
polymers
Ethyl vinyl acetate Thermal stability
Sensitivity in
temperature
Softening point
temperature
Penetration
Torsional recovery
Toughness tenacity
Impact strength
High shrinkage
Difficult to maintain
More equipment needed
Polypropylene Density is low
Sensitive to
temperature and heat
Translucent
Resistance to heat
and temperature
Lower density
Poor resistance to UV light
Thermal expansion
High shrinkage
High creep
Polyethylene Variety of market
application
Heat resistance
Absorb low moisture
Very tough
Excellent resistance
to heat and
temperature
Polyvinyl chloride Recycle plastics
Long process
Recycling plastics
No equipment is
required
construction
properties doubles
Process is of wastes only

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 23
The material of thermoplastic elastomers has the potential to be recyclable because they can be
molded, reused and extruded like plastics. They require little compounding without the need of
adding reinforcing agents, cure systems or stabilizers, therefore, variations of the batch to batch
in metering and weighing components are absent leading to improved consistency in both
fabricated articles and raw materials. Thermal plastic elastomers have material stability and
thermal properties when exposed to non-polar materials and broad range of temperatures and
also they consume less energy to produce (G.J. Senden, 2014)
4.2 Matrix table
Matrix Analysis of the three Polymers
The following are the steps that are considered while using matrix method
Step 1: all the types of polymers and factors mainly setting time, durability, elasticity, fatigue and
resistance to deformation were listed as row labels.
Step 2: each type of polymer was given a score from 0(poor), to 5(very good)
Step 3: the relative importance of the factors were then calculated
Step 4: the value of relative importance factors was multiplied by scores from step 2
Step 5: the weighed score was then added to each of the factors with the highest score (G.J. Senden,
2014)
Factors Setting time Durability Fatigue Elasticity Resistance to
Deformation
Weights
Thermoplastic
Elastomers
4 4 4 5 4
Thermoplastic
Polymers
4 4 3 4 3
Thermosetting
Polymers
3 2 3 3 4
The weighted score was then calculated and multiplied by each factor to give lifespan from the polymer
as shown in the table below:
Factors Setting
time
Durability Fatigue Elasticity Resistance to
Deformation
Total
Weights 3 4 4 5 4
Thermoplastic
Elastomers
16 16 16 25 16 89
Thermoplastic
Polymers
12 16 12 20 12 72
Thermosetting
Polymers
12 8 12 15 16 63

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 24
From the table, it is clear that thermoplastic elastomers are the best polymers to be used in the
construction of roads due to the factors mentioned above. Styrene-butadiene block polymers
have gradually replaced the usage of rubber and latex in bitumen modification as they show
better results in properties like tensile strength impact strength, resistance to extreme
temperatures etc. these factors play a huge role in compatibility of the polymer with the bitumen
ultimately deciding the field performance of the modified asphalt. Material of thermoplastic
elastomers have the potential to be recyclable because they can be molded, reused and extruded
like plastics (G.V. Chilingarian, 2011)
They require little compounding without the need of adding reinforcing agents, cure systems or
stabilizers, therefore, variations of the batch to batch in metering and weighing components are
absent leading to improved consistency in both fabricated articles and raw materials. Thermal
plastic elastomers have material stability and thermal properties when exposed to non-polar
materials and broad range of temperatures and also they consume less energy to produce
(Gianluca Dell'Acqua, 2013)
5.0 Conclusion and recommendations
This research paper is about the use of polymers in road construction. Polymers can be mixed
directly with the existing materials present at the site during the road construction to stabilize
these roads. These polymers can also be used to improve the properties of bitumen or aggregates
used in asphalt road construction. Polymers can be used to improve the properties of bitumen,
aggregates and to strengthen the subsurface layers of the roads. The two main types of polymers
used in bitumen modification are plastometers and thermoplastic plastometers.

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 25
The generation of wastes plastics is increasing daily, the main polymers like polypropylene,
polyethylene. And polystyrene shows properties of adhesion in the state of molten. Plastic will,
increase the melting point of bitumen and form the best material for the road construction. As the
mix have the higher marshal value of stability. Hence the best way of constructing road is by
using the polymers to reduce pollution of plastics. The use of innovative technologies
strengthened roads and increase the road life too and will help improve the environment and also
creating the source of income to the works and constructors through creation of jobs (Halliwell,
2012). Roads made of polymers would be the boon for the places with the hot humid climate
where the temperature crosses 50degeree Celsius frequently and torrential rains that create havoc
leaving the roads with potholes. It is hope that in future there will be strong, eco-friendly and
durable roads that will relieve environment from the waste of plastic (Woodhead Publishing,
2016).
Using polymers in the construction of the roads, will reduce the bitumen by around ten percent
and increase the performance and strength of the road, avoid using the stripping agents, avoid
polymer disposal through landfill and incineration develops the technology ultimately. It will
save resources for construction through preventing roads from the effect of increased traffic
Engineers and scientists are looking for the methods to improve the road performance. For strong
and rigid roads concrete, bitumen and polymers are used. The steady traffic increase in terms of
the vehicles for commerce and variation of the seasonal and daily temperatures demand the
improved characteristics of the roads and the improvement of the binder properties. In the
flexible roads constructions, bitumen plays an important role of the binding the aggregated by
coating over the aggregates and help in improving the road strength through its water resistance
is very poor. The common method that can be used to improve the quality of the bitumen is
modification through blending it with organic and synthetic polymers like plastics and rubbers
(Hansen, 2013).
Conventional roads for the layers of stones imported, and bitumen that is mixed mechanically.
The use of polymer roads proven the stability of the base layer and subsoil stabilizer. The
corporation of the copolymer allows for the subsurface of long-lasting, decreasing the resistance
and increasing the performance. The elasticity of the surface will increase and prohibit the
potholes formation swelling and cracks. Traffic load and frequency, the life span of road and
maintenance are factors to be considered when designing the road. Aggregates and soil need to
be tested to determine the capacity of building loads bearing roads (Hoedt, 2010).
By using the polymer in road construction, the construction costs is reduced and also increase the
performance of road and stabilization, stability, durability, prevent penetration of water, reduces
potholes and ensure the safety of roads. Products of polymers are biodegradable and are carbon
friendly compared to other methods of road constructions. Hence polymers provide green, cost-
effective solution, environmentally friendly, and nontoxic economy. Polymers enhance the

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 26
properties of the bitumen to be low absorption of water, creep, fatigue, and good thermal
expansion (Hoedt, 2010).
There is evidence of the best practices that have been put to improve the bitumen properties
using the polymer materials to enhance the infrastructure of the road. Globally the industry of
polymer has grown mostly in the developing countries because of the increase of the activities of
the transport industry, population, and high volume of traffic. Many attempts of improvements
have been made them and one related to polymer was the most notable. In the short conclusion,
it is evident that polymers modifies bitumen improves the stability, minimize deformation and
increase shareability to work (Hollaway, 2010).

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 27
References:
Abdel-Mohsen Onsy Mohamed, M. E.-G., 2013. Sulfur Concrete for the Construction Industry: A
Sustainable Development Approach. Moscow: J. Ross Publishing.
Acton, Q. A., 2010. Alkadienes—Advances in Research and Application: 2013 Edition: ScholarlyBrief.
Toledo: ScholarlyEditions.
Akovalı, G., 2012. Polymers in Construction. Michigan: iSmithers Rapra Publishing.
Board, N. R. C. (. T. R., 2016. Transportation Research Record. Toledo: the University of Michigan.
Britain, R. a. P. R. A. o. G., 2015. International Polymer Science and Technology, Volume 26, Issues 1-4.
London: Rubber and Plastics Research Association of Great Britain.
Cousins, K., 2014. Polymers in Building and Construction. New York: iSmithers Rapra Publishing.
Creese, R. C., 2010. Polymer Composites II: Composites Applications in Infrastructure Renewal and
Economic Development. Paris: CRC Press.
D. R. Gershkoff, J. C. N. J. C., 2011. Rheological Properties of Polymer-modified Binders for Use in Rolled
Asphalt Wearing Course. Perth: Thomas Telford.
David Doran, B. C., 2012. Construction Materials Reference Book. Paris: Routledge.
DIANE, 2015. Final Environmental Impact Statement: BPA Lower Valley Transmission Project. Michigan:
DIANE Publishing.
Dirk Meissner, L. G. A. S., 2016. Science, Technology and Innovation Policy for the Future: Potentials and
Limits of Foresight Studies. Pretoria: Springer Science & Business Media.
Doble, M., 2015. Polymers in a Marine Environment. Michigan: Smithers Rapra.
Ekolu, S., 2013. Construction Materials and Structures: Proceedings of the First International Conference
on Construction Materials and Structures. Chicago: IOS Press.
Enric Vázquez, C. F. H. G. M. J., 2013. PRO 40: International RILEM Conference on the Use of Recycled
Materials in Buildings and Structures (Volume 1), Volume 1. New York: RILEM Publications.
Francis, R., 2014. Recycling of Polymers: Methods, Characterization and Applications. Paris: John Wiley &
Sons.
G.J. Senden, H. v. d. S. J. G., 2014. Waste Materials in Construction: Putting Theory into Practice.
Moscow: Elsevier.
G.V. Chilingarian, T. Y., 2011. Asphaltenes and Asphalts, 1. Perth: Elsevier.
Gianluca Dell'Acqua, F. W., 2013. Transport Infrastructure and Systems: Proceedings of the AIIT
International Congress on Transport Infrastructure and Systems (Rome, Italy, 10-12 April 2017).
Melbourne: CRC Press.

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 28
Halliwell, S., 2012. Polymers in Building and Construction. Colorado: iSmithers Rapra Publishing.
Hansen, C. M., 2013. Hansen Solubility Parameters: A User's Handbook, Second Edition. Colorado: CRC
Press.
Hoedt, G. D., 2010. Geotextiles, Geomembranes, and Related Products: Steep slopes and walls.
Embankments on soft soil. Roads and railroads. Filtration and drainage. Erosion control. Toledo: CRC
Press.
Hollaway, L., 2010. Advanced Polymer Composites and Polymers in the Civil Infrastructure. Paris: Elsevier.
Hollaway, L., 2016. Polymers and Polymer Composites in Construction. London: Thomas Telford.
Humberto Blanco-Canqui, R. L., 2017. Principles of Soil Conservation and Management. Chicago:
Springer.
Hunter, R. N., 2012. Bituminous Mixtures in Road Construction. California: Thomas Telford.
Hunter, R. N., 2013. Asphalts in Road Construction. Toledo: Thomas Telford.
Imad L. Al-Qadi, T. S. N. A. E. M., 2015. Efficient Transportation and Pavement Systems: Characterization,
Mechanisms, Simulation, and Modeling. London: CRC Press.
India, C. M. C. o., 2012. Indian Concrete Journal, Volume 53. Mumbai: Cement Marketing Company of
India.
John Read, D. W. S. B., 2014. The Shell Bitumen Handbook. Melbourne: Thomas Telford.
Joseph K. Liu, A. C. o. R. A. O. S. T. a. R. A. C. C. f. M. a. E. T. F. T. F. C., 2014. Oil Sands: Preprints [Bitumen
production. Bitumen conversion and processing. Michigan: AOSTRA.
Karak, N., 2011. Fundamentals Of Polymers: Raw Materials To Finish Products. London: PHI Learning Pvt.
Ltd..
Klosowski, J. M., 2014. Science and Technology of Building Seals, Sealants, Glazing, and Waterproofing,
Second Volume, Issue 1200. Perth: ASTM International.
Klosowski, J. M., 2017. Science and Technology of Building Seals, Sealants, Glazing, and Waterproofing,
Second Volume, Issue 1200. New York: ASTM International.
Lau, H. H., 2014. Advances in Steel and Aluminium Structures. Beijing: Research Publishing Service.
Lau, H. H., 2015. Advances in Steel and Aluminium Structures. Michigan: Research Publishing Service.
Lau, H. H., 2017. Advances in Steel and Aluminium Structures. Colorado: Research Publishing Service.
Lloyd H. Hihara, R. P. A. R. M. L., 2012. Environmental Degradation of Advanced and Traditional
Engineering Materials. Michigan: CRC Press.
Mark, H. F., 2014. Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Technology, Concise. London: John Wiley & Sons.
Mertz, D. R., 2017. Application of Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites to the Highway Infrastructure,
Issue 503. Moscow: Transportation Research Board.

The Use of Polymers in Road Construction 29
Ministry of Environment and Forests, G. o. I., 2014. Annual Report. Mumbai: University of Minnesota.
Mortensen, A., 2010. Concise Encyclopedia of Composite Materials. Moscow: Elsevier.
Mouton, Y., 2013. Organic Materials in Civil Engineering. London: John Wiley & Sons.
Mouton, Y., 2014. Organic Materials in Civil Engineering. Perth: John Wiley & Sons.
Nemerow, N. L., 2010. Environmental Engineering: Environmental Health and Safety for Municipal
Infrastructure, Land Use and Planning, and Industry. California: John Wiley & Sons.
Niki Kringos, B. B. D. F. L. W., 2014. Multi-Scale Modeling and Characterization of Infrastructure
Materials: Proceedings of the International RILEM Symposium Stockholm. Beijing: Springer Science &
Business Media.
Peter Domone, J. I., 2013. Construction Materials: Their Nature and Behaviour, Fourth Edition. Toledo:
CRC Press.
Publishing, i. R., 2013. Latex 2006: Frankfurt, Germany, 24-25 January 2006. Colorado: iSmithers Rapra
Publishing,
Robinson, H., 2011. Polymers in Asphalt. London: iSmithers Rapra Publishing.
Santvoort, G. v., 2011. Geotextiles and Geomembranes in Civil Engineering. Melbourne: CRC Press.
Sengoz, B., September 2008. Evaluation of the properties and microstructure of SBS and EVA polymer
modified bitumen. Construction and Building materials, 22(9), pp. 1897-1905.
Shyamli Singh, R. G. A. J., 2017. The Urban Environmental Crisis in India: New Initiatives in Safe Water
and Waste Management. Paris: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Sukhareva, Y. L., 2014. Polymers for Packaging and Containers in Food Industry. New York: CRC Press.
T., M., 2007. The use of polyethylene in hot asphalt mixtures. American journal of applied sciences, Issue
1546-9239, pp. 390-396.
Tayde, S., 2012. Utilisation of waste plastic in asphalting of roads. Scientific reviews and chemical
communications., Issue 2277-2669, pp. 147-157.
Technology, R., 2013. Cellular Polymers. Chicago: iSmithers Rapra Publishing.
Wardlaw, K. R., 2015. Polymer Modified Asphalt Binders, Issue 1108. Perth: ASTM International.
Woodhead Publishing, 2016. Advanced Polymer Composites for Structural Applications in Construction:
ACIC 2004: Proceedings of the Second International Conference, Held at the University of Surrey,
Guildford. Guildford: Leonard Hollaway, M. K. Chryssanthopoulos, Stuart S. J. Moy.