Merton's Strain Theory: Understanding Deviant Behavior and Structural Strain

This article explores Merton's Strain Theory, which explains how societal pressure and lack of means to achieve culturally accepted goals lead individuals to commit crimes. It discusses the strengths and criticisms of the theory, as well as its contrast with Durkheim's theory of anomie.

Introduction
The two most important components of societies are the social structure and culture.
Culture deeply influences an individual's beliefs, values, goals as well as his identity. Cultural
goals are developed in accordance with the existing social structure of the society. The social
structure of a society must provide the 'means' for an individual to achieve his cultural goals.
However, the social structure often fails in providing the means, thereby creating an
imbalance in the fulfillment of the cultural goals. This imbalance that stems from the lack of
necessary means to achieve socially accepted cultural goals leads to structural strain. The
Strain Theory was propounded by Robert K. Merton in 1957. Merton in his Strain theory
holds that societal pressure on individuals and the lack of means to accomplish socially
accepted goals are the prime reasons that lead individuals to commit crimes. References to
the 'Strain Theory' can be found in Criminology theory and even Sociology.
Merton's structural strain theory is connected to Durkheim's theory of anomie that
emphasizes the imbalance between old societal norms and the new values that are evolving.
Durkheim noted that a lack of normal ethical or social standards is responsible for making
people indecisive on how to behave with one another. He considered Anomie as an
undetermined behavioral state that motivated deviant behaviour. In Merton's strain theory
deviant behaviour is regarded as the most likely outcome of the strain that individual's
experience when faced with a lack of approved and adequate means to obtain culturally
validated goals. Durkheim's writings revolve and reflect upon the social conditions in France
that were occurring in that age while Merton's writings were influenced by the economic and
social conditions in the US at that time. Since the middle of the 20th century Merton's classic
strain theory is dominating Criminology and is useful in explaining why crime is still on the

rise even in the times of economic growth. However, all theories accept that only some of all
the strained individuals participate in criminal activities.
Merton proposed a classification of deviance on the basis of two criteria: (1). An
individual's inclination, interest and adherence to cultural goals; (2). An individual's personal
belief on how to achieve his goals. He listed a typology of five types of deviant behaviour
namely, 1. Conformity (when the attainment of goals and their means are culturally accepted
and approved), 2. Innovation(when the legitimate means of attaining a cultural goal is
rejected but the cultural goal itself is accepted), 3. Ritualism (rejection of cultural goals but
acceptance of the means approved by the societal structure), 4. Retreatism (rejection of
cultural goals as well as the traditional means) and 5. Rebellion( when the traditional goals
and valued means are rejected and attempts are made to replace the old societal norms with
new goals and different means).
Merton recognised 'Conformity' and adherence to cultural goals and values as the
most primary reason for prevailing unsanctioned economic activities and crime. The
phenomena that Merton's theory indicates towards can be successfully explained with the
help of an example of how people achieve or strive to achieve economic success. For
instance, in the U.S which has a capitalist system, everybody is motivated to attain financial
profitability for a greater sense of positive identity. There are two legally approved ways of
accomplishing this task, education and work. However, not everyone may have access to
equal opportunities because of brokered access or discrimination on the basis of class,
gender, race, sexuality etc. that is prevalent in most societies (Broidy & Agnew,1997). This
leads to an unequal distribution of means among people belonging to the same society and
having similar aspirations. This lack of accessibility to available means encourages deviant
behaviour among people to attain their cultural goals. Such people then resort to deviant
activities that violate social norms such as theft and embezzlement, to fulfill their economic

goals and cultural ambitions. Individuals who are oppressed or those that are marginalized by
the society are most likely to indulge in such unsanctioned activities to achieve economic
success as even they have similar cultural and economic goals as the rest of the people in the
society. This example validates Merton's theory that a society which fails to provide adequate
and equal means to all the people creates a strain on the less privileged and limits their scope
for success through socially accepted means. A good example of this is the Black Lives
Matter Movement (2014-15) which demanded equal means and respect for all. The
movement adopted a violent tone as a means to accomplish its goals.
Strengths of Merton’s theory
 Merton’s theory provides a valuable theoretical framework for understanding
widespread forms of deviant behaviour and also provides a basis for sociological
research to explore the connection between socio structural conditions and the
normative values and behavior of people.
 Merton successfully explained that often enough our cultural goals cannot be met by
the modest means made available by the social structure. This failure to provide the
means to achieve one’s desired end leads to structural strain and this is what propels
an individual towards deviant behavior.
For instance, a study conducted on a sample of homeless street youth examined the
classic strain perspective in an in-depth manner (Baron, 2006). The results of this
study supported Merton’s argument that relative deprivation, dissatisfaction with
wealth, failure to achieve monetary goals, homelessness, and unemployment were
associated with the tendency to indulge in crime. Researchers also found that
monetary dissatisfaction and relative deprivation were related to various illegal

behaviors. A wide gap between one’s monetary goals or expectations and actual
achievements were associated with crime or deviant means to achieve the desired
goal.
 According to Merton, the disparity between the ambition to achieve and inability to
do so due to unequal access to resources creates structural strain and prepares a fertile
ground that encourages individuals to use deviant behavior such as theft, robbery,
black marketing etc. For example, if we look at the cultural norm in the U.S, we find
that economic success is an integral part of the idealistic American dream. Monetary
success is a shared goal and is very important for building a positive identity and
sense of self in such a capitalist system. The legitimate and approved means to
achieve this are getting an education and working. Unfortunately, things are not as
simple as they sound and access to education and subsequently finding work depends
on various other factors such as class, race, gender, and sexual orientation etc. in the
fast paced U.S society (Broidy & Agnew,1997).
 One of the important implications of Merton’s theory is that resorting to deviant
behaviour is often a successful means to achieving the otherwise difficult great
American dream. Careful analysis of civil rights violations in recent times, wherein
some people have turned to protest and disruption, has revealed that urban uprisings
(such as those in Ferguson and Baltimore and even the Black Lives Matter
movement) have led to systematic changes in policing and judicial practices
suggesting that the unlawful ways and unsanctioned method of seeking change was
able to produce the outcome that people were longing to get but were unable to
achieve with the restricted means.

Criticism of the Strain theory
 Many sociologists have argued that deviance itself is a social construct. According to
them, behaviour that is non- normative is harshly characterised as deviant and this
unjust tagging leads to the formation of governmental policies to control such
behaviour rather than seeking to fix existing problems within the social structure itself
(Bursik, 1988).
 Many critics have questioned Merton’s explanation regarding criminal or deviant
behaviour. According to them, people are often involved in crimes that cannot benefit
them materially, for instance, vandalism of property. This type of delinquent behavior
is "non-utilitarian, malicious, and negativistic" but people still gravitate towards them.
Such behaviour simply cannot be explained by Merton’s theory (Farnworth & Leiber,
1989).
 Merton’s theory has also received criticism for its broad and non-specific reference to
social inequalities and social structures existing in the U.S. Taylor, Walton & Young
(2013), highlighted that while Merton talked about unequal access to various
resources depending on social factors and the resulting strain, he did not make it clear
as to who benefits the most from the existing American social structures.
 Critics have pointed out that Merton depended hugely on the official statistics on
crime. Unfortunately, official statistics are known to be skewed and critics argue that
lower working class is over represented in criminal involvement while the trend is to
understate white collar crime. Since white-collar workers have access to resources and

opportunities to achieve through legitimate means, the crimes they commit are often
more subtle and difficult to track (Taylor, Walton & Young, 2013).
 One of the flaws of Merton’s theory is that he did not talk about criminal activities
involving entire groups of people. He did not address why people decide to organise
uprisings or commit gang activities that go against the established social norms. His
idea of deviant behaviour mostly revolved around the social strain experienced by an
individual due to unrealistic pressure of accumulating wealth or achieving culturally
valued goals and their resulting response to it.
 Critics argue that the Strain theory is capable of explaining only economic crimes but
not violent forms of crime.
Contrast with Durkheim’s theory
While Durkheim suggested that the absence of social norms for regulating human behaviour
and needs results in a state of anomie, Merton had contrasting beliefs about his theory of
anomie. According to Merton, an individual resorts to deviant behaviour as a result of their
faith in culturally exalted values such as accumulating wealth and owning a home. In other
words, Merton blamed an individual’s over conformity and commitment to cultural values
rather than the lack of it. For instance, an individual may conform to the great American
value of monetary achievement but use deviant means to achieve that goal. Implying that for
such individual, the ‘means to an end’ is justified.

Conclusion
Merton considered deviance as an integral part of a functional society. He regarded
culturally- valued goals and culturally- valued means, and a lack of availability of those
means for all as a major factor in determining a person's deviation or conformity. He,
however, also agreed that not all that are marginalised or economically stressed and suffer an
imbalance between the goals and the means are inclined to resort to unfair means.
Merton’s theory has stood the test of time for over half a century now. However, many
researchers have recently rejected strain theory as a valid empirical explanation for
delinquent behaviour (Aseltine ,Gore& Gordon, 2000). However, Farnworth & Leiber (1989)
argue that the conceptual reinterpretations made by scholars differ greatly from Merton's
original work. The researchers have claimed that the on -going controversy about Merton’s
theory that talks about its redundancy do not take into account the fact that commitment (a
partial component of strain) seems adequate to predict delinquent behaviour.
In conclusion, it can be argued that while the theory is certainly very old it hasn’t lost its
relevance in the present times. Resolving social problems and reducing the disparity between
the have and have- nots may hold the key to reducing the menace of delinquent behaviour
and other serious crimes.

References
Aseltine Jr, R. H., Gore, S., & Gordon, J. (2000). Life stress, anger and anxiety, and
delinquency: An empirical test of general strain theory. Journal of Health and Social
Behavior, 256-275.
Baron, S. W. (2006). Street youth, strain theory, and crime. Journal of Criminal Justice,
34(2), 209-223.
Broidy, L., & Agnew, R. (1997). Gender and crime: A general strain theory perspective.
Journal of research in crime and delinquency, 34(3), 275-306.
Bursik, R. J. (1988). Social disorganization and theories of crime and delinquency: Problems
and prospects. Criminology, 26(4), 519-552.
Farnworth, M., & Leiber, M. J. (1989). Strain theory revisited: Economic goals, educational
means, and delinquency. American Sociological Review, 263-274.
Taylor, I., Walton, P., & Young, J. (2013). The new criminology: For a social theory of
deviance. Routledge.