Criminology Theory Assignment 2022

CRIMINOLOGY THEORY 1
Criminology Theory
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Institution
Date

CRIMINOLOGY THEORY 2
Q. It is proven that attributes like hair color, eye color, facial and personality features
are passed from generation to generation through family genetics. Why then would we not
expect criminality or criminal behavior to be passed down through genes also? Discuss
using examples to illustrate your idea.
INTRODUCTION
Heredity is the passing down of traits from parents to their children through reproduction,
where the child inherits genetic information from the parents. The DNA in human beings
contains this genetic information that is responsible for passing down traits from one generation
to another. Physical traits that are passed down include eye color, hair color, facial symmetry,
height and facial features such as freckles and dimples. Studies have also shown that character
traits such as a person’s sense of purpose, how they interact with others and how easily and fast
they develop and learn can be influenced by genetics (Anchontaki 2013).
The personality traits that a person develops are influenced by genetics as well as the
environment in which one is brought up in. personality traits are usually unique to that person’s
character. Environmental factors that might affect a person’s personality traits include religion,
school, family, friends and culture. This essay aims to explain the role that genetics plays in
passing down criminal behavior through generations.
NATURE VERSUS NURTURE
Paula Bernstein and Elyse Schein were identical twins who were separated at birth and
adopted by different families. Paula lived in New York while Elyse lived in Paris. They were
reunited at the age of thirty five. Though they grew up in separate environments, they both
worked for their high school newspapers and were interested in film when they joined university.
They had similar tastes in books and music and had similar personalities (Spillus 2011).

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When children are growing up they tend to look up to their parents as role models. They are
usually very observant and often copy what they see their parents doing. Because of this most of
the parents behaviors can be transmitted to children. It is not uncommon to find the child of a
doctor becoming a doctor himself, or the child of a lawyer becoming a lawyer too. Studies show
that in the same way, crime can also run in families. A study done between the years of 1961 and
2001 showed that of half of the children that were convicted, two third of them came from the
same family. Another study showed that about 800,000 parents who were behind bars also had
close relatives who were convicted (Butterfield 2018)
Children of criminal parents are generally more likely to exhibit criminal behavior in later
years of their lives. Because of the environment they are exposed to, they might end up copying
the behavior of their parents and becoming criminals too. The transfer tends to be highest from
mothers to their daughters, followed by mothers to their sons, then fathers to their daughters and
least from fathers to their sons. This is attributed to the role that the mother usually has in raising
children and the rise in single parent families as well as the commonness of father absenteeism.
In such environments, it is easier for a child to become anti- social and exhibit behavior that can
lead to criminal incarceration (Bolen and Walsh 2013).
Differences in genes can play a role in determining characteristic behavior in people.
Common genetic structures usually determine the characteristics that differentiate species from
each other, such as a dogs loyalty to humans compared to that of a wild animal. These
characteristics are known as instincts. The personality of a person is determined by many
different genes that work together. There is no single gene that can work alone to produce a
particular behavior in a person. Some genes work by increasing a person’s character trait while
others reduce the same character trait. These genetic factors always work with the environment

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to create one’s personality. The environment that a person is exposed to will determine if the trait
will develop or not. For example, a person might have a gene that would put him at a high risk of
developing diabetes if their diet was poor. But if the person is living a healthy lifestyle then the
gene might never be activated and it might even be impossible to know that they contain it
(Banday 2018)
Through behavioral genetics studies, scientists have found that for most traits genetics plays a
bigger role than parental influence. However, influence is likely to change a person’s trait. The
trait can either be diminished or amplified by a person’s environment hence a person’s genetics
doesn’t always determine how a person will behave (Banday 2018)
BEHAVIORAL GENETICS
Behavioral genetics studies how human behavior is influenced by genetics and the
environment. A lot of the behavior studied by psychologists tends to be affected by the genetic
make- up of a person (DeFries 2013). This is contributed by variations in alleles in genetic
variants. All psychological traits are influenced by the genetic make- up of a person, although the
traits aren’t all hereditary.
To assess whether behavioral genes are usually inherited, it is necessary to focus on more than
similarity in interests and personality. This is usually done by focusing on hormonal differences
such as the receptors for dopamine. Although this test proved successful, it only accounts for a
small portion in individual differences.
When it comes to criminal behavior, scientists assessed the ‘warrior gene’ and cadherin 13
(CDH13) which showed that violent offenders carry this gene that makes them more likely to
engage in criminal behavior. This gene is however activated by violent or abusive behavior
during childhood and deactivated in children who grow up in good homes (Barber 2015)

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THE WARRIOR GENE
The gene monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) also known as the warrior gene has been linked to
violent criminal behavior. People with this gene tend to be hypersensitive thus easily affected by
negative experiences. One study that followed a large Dutch family compared the males in the
family that showed abnormally violent behavior with that of the males that were more
hyposensitive. Those that were violent were found to have low levels of MAO-A, while the
hypoactive males did not have the genetic mutation.
Both groups of men were exposed to low levels of aggression and their responses were
analyzed. Although the level of aggression they were exposed to was the same, those with the
MAO-A gene tended to respond more violently than the others. People with this gene who were
exposed to violence ad mistreatment during childhood were predicted to commit crime later in
their lives. The prediction was correct (Schrahi 2015)
The MAO-A gene is usually involved in the breakdown of neurotransmitters norepinephrine,
epinephrine, dopamine and serotonin. Serotonin is responsible for regulating mood, emotion,
appetite and sleep. Norepinephrine and epinephrine control how he body responds to stress and
dopamine transmits signal to the brain that helps with smooth physical movement.
The MAO-A gene is found in every individual. However, a mutation of it can affect a
person’s behavior and personality. There are several variations of this gene. These variations
have been associated with depression, anti- social behavior and aggression. In the variant that
causes aggression, the allele which is associated with behavioral trait is usually shorter thus
producing less of the MAO-A enzyme. Low activity MAO-A could be used to predict aggression
when an individual is provoked (Wilson 2015).

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This mutation is mostly found in males than in females. This is because the MAO-A gene is
usually linked to the X chromosome and males contain only one copy of this chromosome,
making the effect more prominent. The gene makes the carrier more susceptible to risky decision
making, impulsivity, violent behavior, anxiety, neuroticism and solitary behavior.
OTHER GENES INFLUENCING CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR
5-hydroxytryptanine receptor 2B (HTR2B) - it is usually associated with substance abuse and
its carriers are at a higher risk of committing serious crimes on impulse.
Cadherin 13- This gene is a member of the cadherin superfamily. It lacks cytoplasmic and
Trans-membrane domain.it is found in the cardiovascular and neurological system and mainly
suppresses the growth of tumors. It has been associated with attention deficit hypertensive
disorder (ADHD), depression, autism, substance abuse and violent behavior.
ADOPTION AND TWIN STUDIES
Adoption and twin studies are used to compare the traits of an adopted child to his or her
biological relatives. It focuses on the genetic characteristics inherited by the child by eliminating
the effects of environmental factors. These studies have been used to provide information on the
importance of heredity, and how it affects one’s personality. It studies the difference between
siblings who share genes but have been brought up in different environments. The study of
identical twins that have been separated early in life is usually more accurate since identical
twins share all of their genes while fraternal twins only share half of them.
One negative aspect about these studies is that a person’s personality can vary throughout
their lifetime. Not all genes usually operate in all phases of life. Some work in transition periods,
while others are triggered by stressors.

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WHAT IS RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CRIME AND GENETICS?
Criminality is the act of engaging in activities that lead to the incarceration or prosecution of
an individual. In genetic studies, it is associated with some behaviors like anti- social personality
disorder. It is believed that people with this personality disorder are at a higher risk of engaging
in criminal activity. Attention Deficit hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Conduct Disorder
(CD) provide a higher risk for the individual to develop anti- social behavior later in life.
Anti- social behavior is usually common around similar families, suggesting that it could be
hereditary. Using adoption and twin studies, researchers have been able to determine the role that
genetics plays in the development of anti- social behavior. They concluded that genetics plays a
strong role in determining whether a person develops anti- social personality disorder or not. The
influence of the environment is however stronger (Farahany 2011). The results show that a
person can be genetically predisposed to developing anti- social personality disorder, but may
not manifest it if not placed within the environmental factors which are necessary.
CONCLUSION
Criminal behavior involves aggressive or violent behavior or hyperactive and impulsive
reaction to negative stimuli. These behaviors have been linked to certain genetic markers,
including a variation of monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) which contributes to hypersensitivity.
Other hormones such as cadherin 13 and HTR2B are associated with attention deficit
hypersensitivity disorder (ADHD) which I adults manifests as hypersensitivity.
People with hypersensitivity are more likely to develop antisocial behavior which makes them
more predisposed to committing crime. The anti- social personality trait has been observed

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within members of the same family, suggesting that it is hereditary. This shows that genetics
plays a role in passing down criminal behavior from one generation to the next.
In as much as genetics do play a role in passing down genes associated with criminal behavior
from one generation to the next, environmental factors play an even greater role in whether these
genes will be activated or not (Kelly 2015). Individuals who have these genes and are brought up
in violent and abusive homes tend to activate the genes and hence become involved in criminal
behavior later in life. But those who have the genes but grow up in positive environment end up
having the genes suppressed and it may not manifest during their life time.

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REFERENCES
Archontaki, D., Lewis, J., and Bates, T. (2013). Genetic Influences on Psychological Well-
Being: A Nationally Representative Twin Study. Journal of Personality, 81(2), 221-230.
doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2012.00787.x
Banday, S., Agarwal, A., and Kumar, R. (2018). Epigenetics - Nature Vs Nurture.
Barber, N. (2015). What Do We Inherit from Our Parents and Ancestors? psychology today.
doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-5671-2_5
Butterfield, F. (2018). When Crime Is a Family Affair. Retrieved from
https://www.theatlantic.com/family/archive/2018/10/crime-runs-family/573394/ (21 September
2019)
Bolen, J., and Walsh, P. (2013). The Neurobiology of Criminal Behavior: Gene-Brain-Culture
Interaction. Surrey, England: Ashgate Publishing.
DeFries, C.,and Knopik, V. ( 2013). Test Bank (Downloadable Version) for Behavioral
Genetics. New York, NY: Worth.
Farahany, N. (2011). The Impact of Behavioral Sciences on Criminal Law. New York, NY:
Oxford University Press.
Kelly, W. (2015). Criminal Justice at the Crossroads: Transforming Crime and Punishment. New
York, NY: Columbia University Press
Placzek, K. (2017). Examining the warrior gene- MAOA and aggression. The ZRT laboratory
Blog. Retrieved from https://www.zrtlab.com/blog/archive/warrior-gene-maoa-agression/ (21
September 2019)

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Sohrabi, S. (2015). The criminal gene: the link between MAOA and aggression (REVIEW).
BMC Proceedings, 9(S1). doi:10.1186/1753-6561-9-s1-a49
Spillius, A. (2011). Identical twins reunited after 35 years. the telegraph [washington].
Retrieved from https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1567542/Identical-twins-reunited-
after-35-years.html (21 September 2019)
Wilson, D. (2015). Genetics, Crime and Justice. Gloucestershire, England: Edward Elgar
Publishing.