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7.1DIVISIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM OBJECTIVE •Describe how the skeleton is organized into axial and appendicular divisions. The adult human skeleton consists of 206 named bones, most of which are paired, with one member of each pair on the right and left sides of the body. The skeletons of infants and children have more than 206 bones because some of their bones (sacrum and coccyx) fuse later in life. Examples are the hip bones and some bones (sacrum and coccyx) of the vertebral column (backbone). Bones of the adult skeleton are grouped into two principal divisions: theaxial skeletonand theappendicular skeleton(appendic= to hang onto). Table‐7.1presents the 80 bones of the axial skeleton and the 126 bones of the appendicular skeleton. Figure7.1shows how both divisions join to form the complete skeleton (the bones of the axial skeleton are shown in blue). You can remember the names of the divisions if you think of the axial skeleton as consisting of the bones that lie around the longitudinalaxisof the human body, an imaginary vertical line that runs through the body's center of gravity from the head to the space between the feet: skull bones, auditory ossicles (ear bones), hyoid bone (see Figure7.5), ribs, sternum (breastbone), and bones of the vertebral column. The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of theupperandlower limbs (extremitiesorappendages), plus the bones forming thegirdlesthat connect the limbs to the axial skeleton. Functionally, the auditory ossicles in the middle ear, which vibrate in response to sound waves that strike the eardrum, are not part of either the axial or appendicular skeleton, but they are grouped with the axial skeleton for convenience (see Chapter17). Table7.1The Bones of the Adult Skeletal System DIVISION OF THE SKELETONSTRUCTURENUMBER OF BONES Axial skeletonSkull
Metacarpals10 Phalanges28 Pelvic (hip) girdle Hip, pelvic, or coxal bone2 Lower limbs Femur2 Patella2 Fibula2 Tibia2 Tarsals14 Metatarsals10 Phalanges28 Number of bones = 126 Total bones in an adult skeleton = 206 John Gibb Figure7.1Divisions of the skeletal system. The axial skeleton is indicated in blue. (Note the position of the hyoid bone in Figure7.5.) The adult human skeleton consists of 206 bones grouped into two divisions: the axial skeleton and the
appendicular skeleton. John Gibb Which of the following structures are part of the axial skeleton, and which are part of the appendicular skeleton? Skull, clavicle, vertebral column, shoulder girdle, humerus, pelvic girdle, and femur. We will organize our study of the skeletal system around the two divisions of the skeleton, with emphasis on how the many bones of the body are interrelated. In this chapter we focus on the axial skeleton, looking first at the skull and then at the bones of the vertebral column and the chest. In Chapter8we explore the appendicular skeleton, examining in turn the bones of the pectoral (shoulder) girdle and upper limbs, and then the pelvic (hip) girdle and the lower limbs. Before we examine the axial skeleton, we direct your attention to some general characteristics of bones. 7.2TYPES OF BONES OBJECTIVE •Classify bones based on their shape or location. Almost all bones of the body can be classified into five main types based on shape: long, short, flat, irregular, and sesamoid (Figure7.2). As you learned in Chapter6,long boneshave greater length than width, consist of a shaft and a variable number of extremities or epiphyses (ends), and are slightly curved for strength. A curved bone absorbs the stress of the body's weight at several different points, so that it is evenly distributed. If bones were straight, the weight of the body would be unevenly distributed, and the bone would fracture more easily. Long bones consist mostly ofcompact bone tissuein their diaphyses but have considerable amounts ofspongy bone tissuein their epiphyses. Long bones vary tremendously in size and include those in the femur (thigh bone), tibia and fibula (leg bones), humerus (arm bone), ulna and radius (forearm bones), and phalanges (finger and toe bones).
Figure7.2Types of bones based on shape. The bones are not drawn to scale. The shapes of bones largely determine their functions. John Gibb Which type of bone primarily provides protection and a large surface area for muscle attachment? Short bonesare somewhat cube shaped and are nearly equal in length and width. They consist of spongy bone‐ tissue except at the surface, which has a thin layer of compact bone tissue. Examples of short bones are most carpal (wrist) bones and most tarsal (ankle) bones. Flat bonesare generally thin and composed of two nearly parallel plates of compact bone tissue enclosing a layer of spongy bone tissue. Flat bones afford considerable protection and provide extensive areas for muscle attachment. Flat bones include the cranial bones, which protect the brain; the sternum (breastbone) and ribs, which protect organs in the thorax; and the scapulae (shoulder blades). Irregular boneshave complex shapes and cannot be grouped into any of the previous categories. They vary in the amount of spongy and compact bone present. Such bones include the vertebrae (backbones), hip bones, certain facial bones, and the calcaneus. Sesamoid bones(SES a moyd = shaped like a sesame seed) develop in certain tendons where there is‐ ‐ considerable friction, tension, and physical stress, such as the palms and soles. They may vary in number from person to person, are not always completely ossified, and typically measure only a few millimeters in diameter. Notable exceptions are the two patellae (kneecaps), large sesamoid bones located in the quadriceps femoris tendon (see Figure11.20a) that are normally present in everyone. Functionally, sesamoid bones protect tendons from excessive wear and tear, and they often change the direction of pull of a tendon, which improves the mechanical advantage at a joint. An additional type of bone is classified by location rather than shape.Sutural bones(SOO chur al;‐‐sutur=‐ seam) are small bones located in sutures (joints) between certain cranial bones (see Figure7.6). Their number varies greatly from person to person. Recall from Chapter6that in adults, red bone marrow is restricted to flat bones such as the ribs, sternum (breastbone), and skull; irregular bones such as vertebrae (backbones) and hip bones; long bones such as the proximal epiphyses of the femur (thigh bone) and humerus (arm bone); and some short bones. 7.3BONE SURFACE MARKINGS
OBJECTIVE •Describe the principal surface markings on bones and the functions of each. Bones have characteristicsurface markings, structural features adapted for specific functions. Most are not present at birth but develop in response to certain forces and are most prominent in the adult skeleton. In response to tension on a bone surface from tendons, ligaments, aponeuroses, and fasciae, new bone is deposited, resulting in raised or roughened areas. Conversely, compression on a bone surface results in a depression. There are two major types of surface markings: (1)depressions and openings, which allow the passage of soft tissues (such as blood vessels, nerves, ligaments, and tendons) or form joints, and (2)processes, projections or outgrowths that either help form joints or serve as attachment points for connective tissue (such as ligaments and tendons). Table7.2describes the various surface markings and provides examples of each. Table7.2Bone Surface Markings MARKINGDESCRIPTIONEXAMPLE DEPRESSIONS AND OPENINGS: SITES ALLOWING THE PASSAGE OF SOFT TISSUE (NERVES, BLOOD VESSELS, LIGAMENTS, TENDONS) OR FORMATION OF JOINTS Fissure(FISH ur)‐Narrow slit between adjacent parts of bones through which blood vessels or nerves pass. Superior orbital fissure of sphenoid bone (Figure7.12). Foramen(fō RĀ men = hole;‐‐ plural isforamina) Opening through which blood vessels, nerves, or ligaments pass. Optic foramen of sphenoid bone (Figure7.12). Fossa(FOS a = trench; plural‐ isfossae, FOS ē)‐ Shallow depression.Coronoid fossa of humerus (Figure8.5a). Sulcus(SUL kus = groove;‐ plural issulci, SUL sī)‐ Furrow along bone surface that accommodates blood vessel, nerve, or Intertubercular sulcus of humerus (Figure8.5a).
7.4SKULL OBJECTIVES •Name the cranial and facial bones and indicate whether they are paired or single. •Describe the following special features of the skull: sutures, paranasal sinuses, and fontanels. Theskullis the bony framework of the head. It contains 22 bones (not counting the bones of the middle ears) and rests on the superior end of the vertebral column (backbone). The bones of the skull are grouped into two categories: cranial bones and facial bones. Thecranial bones(crani= brain case) form the cranial cavity,‐ which encloses and protects the brain. The eight cranial bones are the frontal bone, two parietal bones, two temporal bones, the occipital bone, the sphenoid bone, and the ethmoid bone. Fourteenfacial bonesform the face: two nasal bones, two maxillae (or maxillas), two zygomatic bones, the mandible, two lacrimal bones, two palatine bones, two inferior nasal conchae, and the vomer. Exhibits7.Athrough7.Gillustrate the bones of the skull from different views. Examples Anatomy Overview: The Axial Skeleton‐The Skull General Features and Functions Besides forming the large cranial cavity, the skull also forms several smaller cavities, including the nasal cavity and orbits (eye sockets), which open to the exterior. Certain skull bones also contain cavities called paranasal sinuses that are lined with mucous membranes and open into the nasal cavity. Also within the skull are small middle ear cavities in the temporal bones that house the structures that are involved in hearing and equilibrium (balance).
Other than the auditory ossicles (tiny bones involved in hearing), which are located within the temporal bones, the mandible is the only movable bone of the skull. Joints called sutures attach most of the skull bones together and are especially noticeable on the outer surface of the skull. The skull has many surface markings, such as foramina (rounded passageways) and fissures (slit like openings)‐ through which blood vessels and nerves pass. You will learn the names of important skull bone surface markings as we describe each bone. In addition to protecting the brain, the cranial bones stabilize the positions of the brain, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves through the attachment of their inner surfaces to meninges (membranes). The outer surfaces of cranial bones provide large areas of attachment for muscles that move various parts of the head. The bones also provide attachment for some muscles that produce facial expressions such as the frown of concentration you wear when studying this book. The facial bones form the framework of the face and provide support for the entrances to the digestive and respiratory systems. Together, the cranial and facial bones protect and support the delicate special sense organs for vision, taste, smell, hearing, and equilibrium (balance). Nasal Septum The nasal cavity is a space inside the skull that is divided into right and left sides by a vertical partition called thenasal septum, which consists of bone and cartilage. The three components of the nasal septum are the vomer, septal cartilage, and the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone (Figure7.11). The anterior border of the vomer articulates with the septal cartilage, which is hyaline cartilage, to form the anterior portion of the septum. The superior border of the vomer articulates with the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone to form the remainder of the nasal septum. The term “broken nose,” in most cases, refers to damage to the septal cartilage rather than the nasal bones themselves. Figure7.11Nasal septum. The structures that form the nasal septum are the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone, the vomer, and septal cartilage.John Gibb What is the function of the nasal septum? CLINICAL CONNECTIONDeviated Nasal Septum Adeviated nasal septumis one that does not run along the midline of the nasal cavity. It deviates (bends) to one side. A blow to the nose can easily damage, or break, this delicate septum of bone and displace and damage the cartilage. Often, when a broken nasal septum heals, the bones and cartilage deviate to one side
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