Theories, principles and models in education and training

This article discusses the various theories, principles and models of learning and assessment in education and training. It covers topics such as behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism, humanism, and connectivism. It also explores learning preferences and how they can be applied to create an inclusive learning environment. The article provides insights into the different types of assessments and the principles that should be followed while designing them. It also includes references for further reading.

THEORIES, PRINCIPLES
AND MODELS IN
EDUCATION AND
TRAINING

TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS..............................................................................................................2
TASK-A...........................................................................................................................................3
1.1 Analysing theories, model and principle of learning............................................................3
1.2 Analysing model of learning preferences.............................................................................4
1.3 Explaining ways in which theories, principles and models of learning can be applied........5
3.3 Identifying points of referral available to meet individual learning needs...........................6
1.4 Explaining how 'taking account of learners’ individual learning preferences enables
inclusive......................................................................................................................................6
teaching, learning and assessment...............................................................................................6
TASK B...........................................................................................................................................7
TASK C...........................................................................................................................................7
3.1 Application of theories, principles and models of assessment..............................................7
3.2 Use of such theories, models and practices in assessing learning.........................................8
PART-D.........................................................................................................................................10
4.1 Presenting the model, theories of curriculum development................................................10
Theories of curriculum development.......................................................................................11
4.2 Explaining ways in which theories and models of curriculum development can be applied
...................................................................................................................................................11
PART-E..........................................................................................................................................12
5.1 Theories and models of reflection.......................................................................................12
5.2 Ways through which theories and models of reflection can be applied in reviewing own
practice......................................................................................................................................13
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................15

TASK-A
1.1 Analysing theories, model and principle of learning
Learning is a process of gaining skill and knowledge which lead to change a result of
experience and increases the potential in order to improved performance and future learning.
There are various theories of learning such as behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism, brain-
based and humanism theory.
Behaviourism is an idea in which behaviour explained through external factors and
condition used as universal learning process (Alshammari and et.al., 2019). This also includes
negative and positive reinforcement among students that can be effective for rewards and
punishment system.
Cognitivism learning theory in which children develops perceptive pathways for
understanding the physical response of teacher. This is most effective theory for students in
lecture instruction and reading text.
Constructivism is a theory in which student are creating their own understanding world
through previous experiences with linking new information.
Humanism focused on individual person learning by natural process that can helps to
reach at self-actualization. For example, role model and scenario are important factors in human
leaning for exploring, experiences and observing others.
Connectivism is new learning and developing theory that based upon the ideas of people
for making connection (Bashir and et.al., 2021). According to this theory people are developed
with digital technology and adapting them for advanced eras.
Pedagogical model is combination of all factors of learning such as visual, auditory,
kinaesthetic that are being engaged among students during learning. This combination helps to
learn experience in a variety of ways that create a diverse learning style. It includes all the
gesture which is used to communicate and interact with other person. For example, in colleges
professor used to explain by presentation that includes all the images, gestures, audio etc. This is
the best method for student learning process.
Principles of learning are guidelines in which people can learn effectively, it is stated that
principles facilitate learning as well as change the behaviour.

Participation refers to a situation where learner can actively participate in task and
apparently engages more senses of reinforce in the process of learning.
Repetition is important principle in which learner provided opportunity for their practice
and repetition.
Relevance is a method by which people motivate for learning when training can be
immediately relevant and able to solve the problem.
Transference is a process where people trained and whether learning will transfer for
actual situation (Christie and De Graaff, 2017). This also results for enhance the performance in
new situation.
Feedback provides learner information on their progress, this improves performance of
person only when leader helping them to correct mistakes.
1.2 Analysing model of learning preferences
Honey and Mumford learning style/ preferences built on Kolb's learning style model
that enables students to produce their own perspective of questionnaires because of low validity
of Kolb's. This helps to make smart decisions as well as improving learning awareness and skills
by various skills such as:
Theorist- These type of learner use their opportunity for better understanding the
hypothesis behind the activities. They used modal on basis of truths and ideas of specific goal
that engaged in learning procedures.
Pragmatist- this is style where learner identifies that how to use learning into practices in
the present reality (Cornish, 2017). They take time to think about the application learning in
reality, problem solving, case studies etc.
Activists- They are known for individuals who are learning by doing, and activity related
to such learners are brainstorms, puzzles, competition, role-play, etc.
Reflectors- These are the set of learner which are watching and contemplating on
situations. Their activities are time out, self questionnaires, observing etc.
The VARK model of learning that used to described learning style, such as visual,
auditory, reading/writing, kinesthetic, pedagogical and andragogy. When the learners are suitable
with their preferred style retention and understanding are increases.
Visual learning is a type of style where students prefer to use graphics, images, colours
and map for communicating by thoughts and ideas, learner must see details in order to learn this.

Auditory learning is a process when people learn by listening that can be effective when
it would be preferred listening to lecture over reading by textbook, or hearing the guidelines for a
project instead of figuring it out hands.
Reading/writing is effective method of learning when learners want to improve their
vocabulary, raises self-esteem, also building good communication skills (Falahatgar and et.al.,
2018). It is important when it develops the thought of an individual and keep them active.
Kinesthetic learning style is a process when people learn by someone's physical
information by hand and body movement, control and expression. This technique can be
combination of visual and auditory study, also produces multi-sensory learning. When a person
used to swim the instruction will be in the form of auditory and kinesthetic so which they can
understand the concept of learning. This is useful for people who are absorbed the information
through touch, motion and movement.
1.3 Explaining ways in which theories, principles and models of learning can be applied
There are many effective ways in which theories, principle and assessment can be applied
as model of learning. Such that when teacher used pedagogical model while teaching the
students with review session of videos within classroom. This in turn assist to improve the
learning among teacher and create a better outcome. So, it can be stated that by using verbal
model of communication, teacher use motivational languages to uplifting words for inform and
transform for making the student a good listener (Huang, Liang and Wang, 2018). Hpwever,
behaviourism theory also help in developing the skills of person while explaining others. In
andrology method of learning adults or college students are required to learn from experiment
and also from verbal communication with their professor. It is also improved the understanding
of science and practice of student on a particular topic. Though by using behaviourism theory,
individual can learned from an environment and leads to positive reinforcement that assist to
create improve learning among students.
Another way is to use cognitive model that helps to understand the change in behaviour
that helps to analyse the need of knowledge. Apart from this, behaviourist theory assist to
incorporate system into a course content and also punishment is not considered as an appropriate
mode to encourage motivation theory but it affected student self-esteem. Multiple intelligence
theory also assist to applied in a classroom that help to identify different learning styles and it
contribute to brain based learning that assist in teaching and improve the overall performance as

well. That is why, by applying effective theories and principle, learning can be improved and
makes students understand about their own weakness. Hence, a teacher always need to
acknowledge different needs which assist to generate SMART goals for each individual and
understand the need of learners as well.
3.3 Identifying points of referral available to meet individual learning needs
Individual learning preferences will influence significantly that will be applied to
teaching method. This is important to analysed which model is suitable for particular teaching
situation. Different learning style are used but the kinesthetic learner would be appropriate to
adopt and can be more focused model to maximize the potential learning. In addition to this,
assessment should possible when cater for individual learning style also same as excel in written
assessment (Kaufman, 2018). There are many factors that influence the referral process such as
teacher's belief system affect the modern teaching method over traditional teaching method.
Class size also distract the other that may cause disturbance in the class. To identifying the needs
of an individual that can boost their morale as well as encourage them. When teacher provides
individual prescribed instruction that may significantly help many learners for understanding the
grasp of educational concepts.
In this, teacher can use special education evaluation which entails about the specific need
of a students. For example, a student who is not able to read through their eyes, then teacher
should use effective way that help in reading. Also, counselling services are also assist to
identify the learning needs and this in turn motivate students to improve their knowledge and
skills. By using these referral, teacher can easily create a better outcome and improve the skills
among students as well.
1.4 Explaining how 'taking account of learners’ individual learning preferences enables inclusive
teaching, learning and assessment
Learner style model given by Honey & Mumford for specific styles such as activist,
theorist, pragmatist and reflector. Also, this theory help to maintain inclusive learning
environment and that contribute to engage employees for a longer term. That is why, individual
learning preference need to be included which is as mentioned below:

Activist- This style is related to kinesthetic learning students where this involves mind
mapping, practical activities, problem solving, group discussion and role plays. This method help
to maintain inclusive learning environment which in turn engage employees.
Theorist- It is consisted that learning through synthesis and analysis of information from
logical theories and can be crucial for autistic learner. In this study material should be statistics,
quotes, relevant theories and background information.
Pragmatist- This learning style is important to apply for experiment. In this style
students learn through discussions, case studies, time to reflect and problem solving.
Reflector- Teaching should be in form of paired groups, questionnaires, observation,
self-analysis work, coaching and feedback. Usually this style helps to improve students skills by
such methods or training.
TASK B
Enclosed in PPT
TASK C
3.1 Application of theories, principles and models of assessment
In the process of learning, it is important to check that the learning has occurred. This is
done by assessment and can range from being quick and simple in form of questioning to the
final exam that is form of requirements for awarding and qualifications. Assessment can be:
Diagnostic assessment: It helps in informing both teacher and learner about the current
abilities along with the needs for the future (Suldovsky, McGreavy, and Lindenfeld, 2017). It
helps in assessing if the student is suitable for the course or not. It provides an ideal opportunity
to assess the ability of students and to know how better the tutor can work with the students
while developing different strategies in learning and training.
Competency model: This model helps in measuring the success of performance and is
applied within the training and performance assessment. It depends on different competencies
that are related with the specific needs of the job. Core competency includes the baseline skills
that are present in the students and depends on the values and goals. It includes communication
skills and learning to work with teams. Functional competencies are specific to the course and
identifying the behaviours that are unique for the same. It helps in describing the behaviours and
skills that are important to perform such tasks and come in the top position.

Learning theory and assessment: Assessment is important in areas for teaching and
learning with the goal of collecting and interpreting the performance of students. Assessment for
learning is an approach that leads to creating feedbacks that will help in improving the
performance of students. It makes them be more involved within the learning process and gain
confidence in the process (Bylieva, Lobatyuk, and Safonova, 2019). Assessment learning is the
test data where a particular data element is in discussion and the process of assessment is known
to be constant.
While designing the assessment it is important to follow the principles related to it. These
principles include:
Validity: It is about how accurate is the measurement of the assessment in accordance
with the performance of the students. The main motive for validity is to measure with an
intention and see if the assessment is appropriate or not regarding that education level.
Reliability:This principle is about the consistency of the outcomes attained from
assessments that are given within the same condition. It is about the stability developed over time
along with different raters. Reliability is ensuring that the assessment is done with two
independent assessor that work on same judgement while being based on assessment brief
(Chriki, and et.al., 2019).
Transparency: It is essential that the students are provided by a certain grading criteria
that will make them well aware of the expected standards and gain the associated rewards
(Denman, and Al-Mahrooqi, 2018).
Authenticity: It is important that the work is done by own students and not copied from
others. In such cases students will receive a qualification for the necessary skills that they do not
posses.
Medal and mission: This model for assessment is also known as formative assessment.
Medal is used to review the exact things from the learners and the mission of the assessment is
recommended about what all has to be done by the learners from future and rectifying the
mistakes in the process.
3.2 Use of such theories, models and practices in assessing learning
Competency model is essential for assessing the learning process of an individual as
helps in equipping students with knowledge, skills and various attributes that will help them

navigate their personal journey in learning and working. In the process of developing
competencies, they will face unfamiliar and challenging situations and will learn to apply these
competencies in the area of subject and other learning experiences. Meanwhile, it also allows the
employees to take the ownership of skills and behaviours that are important for them and
offering a fair system to evaluate the performance. Along with this, competency models can be
applied in learning by conducting group activity within students that will help them in
interacting with each other as well as finding innovative idea for dealing with issues.
A well constructed system of summative and formative assessments helps the students to
demonstrate their capabilities and knowledge and work on the ways by which they will meet the
desired goals and standards (Kozlov, Teslya, and Zhang, 2017). Assessment of learning includes
the process of analysing the information from the teaching and learning process. Assessment for
learning will help learner to improve the outcomes and increase the confidence of students by
creating a sense of efficacy. In addition to this, it helps the learners to be less passive and
develop the ability to assess them while taking responsibility to own learning therefore,
increasing the independence. Assessment for learning involves the information that is gathered at
the end of learning process. Learning models are made in different forms of assessment that are
applicable. It helps in demonstrating a clear and observable changes that occurs in the behaviours
of students. Moreover, prodigy method can be used for diagnostic assessments as it will help
students to engage with other student as well as build their skills.
Assessment of the knowledge and skills is integrated along with its application on
practical basis. It makes the learner to demonstrate the skills and knowledge that are important
for the learners. Principle of validity is used to ensure the suitability of the assessment performed
and proposed. Reliability in assessment helps in giving clear directions for the evaluation
process. Reliability used in assessment helps in planning, implementing and scoring their
performance to have a valid assessment (Lockyer,and et.al., 2017). It is important in learning
and teaching that the tutors include the grade boundaries and related requirements within an
assessment that will help in making it completely clear on ways to mark the assessment and
identify what all is asked from the students. Authenticity for the work done by the students is
checked to see if the work is not stolen from other sources. Authenticity helps in assessing how
relevant the assessment is in the real world application. Medal and mission model for assessment

helps in outlining the specific areas within a personal action plan and helps in defining the
relation that is developed between the process of learning and implementation.
PART-D
4.1 Presenting the model, theories of curriculum development
There are different learning models which are used for a curriculum development and this
are as mentioned below:
Linear: In this model, all learning is defined in term of what learners should be able to do
at the end of a course (Akhmetshin and et.al., 2019). Thus, it is a systematic approach of
planning where major focus upon learning outcome and enable the individual to attain the
defined aim. It is divided into 4 steps which are as mentioned below:
 determine the aim and objectives
 Construct a course so that objectives can be met
 Test capacity to attain objectives Explain the curriculum and objectives to teachers
Cyclical model: It is somehow similar to linear model and also involves the identification of
aim and objective that is based upon the needs assessment of all professional bodies. On the
critically side, it has been analyzed that changes must be planned and introduced on valid basis
that helps to determine the need of curriculum development (Handelzalts, 2019). The model also
identifies the context of what is to be delivered and examine the learners need by formulating
aim and objectives. Thus, it helps to generate the best outcomes and develop evolution strategies
for gathering best information. The biggest advantage of using this model is to such that its
logical sequential structure is easy to follow for an inexperienced teacher to generate bets
outcomes.
The process/dynamic/student- centered model: The curriculum development is
considered an ongoing process which helps to attain the defined development of an individual.
Thus, it allows learner to define own learning goals. This student centered model encourage
teachers to engage with students who has mastered in specific concepts in the task for their peers.
There are four practices that included in assessment practices peer or self assessment, process
portfolios and exhibitions. For dynamic approaches of learning provides opportunity ti identify

the improvement needs and also makes use of prior base of knowledge in terms of developing
the actions plans for improving the teaching skills.
Theories of curriculum development
Ralph Tyler has introduced this theory in 1949’s and it is a scientific approach of developing a
curriculum. Along with this, according to this theory curriculum development include four steps
such a determine school objectives as it easier to align student’s goals with it. In addition to this,
teachers need to identify educational experience related to purpose. For example, if teacher
wants to build communication skill within students then it need to conduct activities like speech
and group project as it will contribute in building this skill. Furthermore, while developing
curriculum teacher needs to organize the experience such as developing lesson planning. lastly,
it need to evaluate the performance of students in order to identify their strengths and weakness.
4.2 Explaining ways in which theories and models of curriculum development can be applied
There are various ways in which model and theories of curriculum development in own
areas of specialization are as follows:
Curriculum specialist give support to teachers through helping revise and create
materials that used in the class. They can analyzed student data to improve and assess the
implementation and evaluation of study.
Applying curriculum theories- Institution uses curriculum theories for design
competency programs to development for learners (Vong and Kaewurai, 2017). In this all the
related programs are held on skill development, public speaking, personification and analytical
ability.
Study skills- This study is sources of knowledge in haphazard way that depicted by
college, analytical and memorizing power depends on the study strategy.
Meeting requirement of awarding- For fulfilling the requirements learners should follow
the procedure and development their skills. It can be great opportunities for learners to
competition with most qualifies or skilled people.
Offering learner's choice- Institution can tactfully offer learners to choose the area of
specialism and also believe that every learner has specialized skills on any subject or topic. This
can be great possibility to be successful for the institution.
Developing Curriculum is the multi-step process of improving and creating a particular
course taught at any institution. On other hand the exact process can be different from colleges.

There are also includes such stages for building, analyzing, implementing, evaluating etc. This
process is progressive and systematic in terms of creating positive improvement in the
educational system.
Interactive learning- This refers to course which is sharing and designing in the different
parts of the world. Also, college provided access from worldwide to their learners and made the
curriculum for customization according to the individual's choice (Picciano, 2017). This breaking
students from stereotypes methods, and enables development of critical thinking.
Use of technology- According to this era of digital world, technological advancement in
colleges affiliated with different prominent educational organization. So, it can be access for
worldwide and dependable courses. This enhances the learning experiences and also save
teacher's time, and offer transparency into learning process for students as well as stakeholders. It
can be helped for increasing engagement between students. On other hand, it is beneficial for
teacher also for making lesson plan, facilitate personalized learning.
Supporting learner study- In this curriculum it supports the learners for study amd
research. This also provides online facilities like online lecture sheet and e-portal with 24 hours
query system. So that learners get inspired for study.
PART-E
5.1 Theories and models of reflection
Reflective practice is a means of implementing self-awareness relating to performance as
well as enable to growth and development. There are different theories related to reflection such
as: Gibbs reflective cycle which is compile of six cyclic stages i.e. description, feeling,
evaluation, analysis, conclusion and action plan (Wain, 2017). The model also helps to explain
different feelings regarding to any experience and this in turn assists to easily elaborate the
feelings for an experience. However, with the help of Kolb’s learning cycle, it has been analyzed
that there are four stages which helps to explain the things in an effective manner. Such that in
first stage, experience where individual provide a brief overview of their life. Next stage is
reflecting, which involves thinking about what we have done and experienced. Under third stage,
conceptualize where individual thinks about the experience in order to interpret the things
effectively (Bershadsky and et.al., 2018). In the last stage, Plan where conclusion is drawn in
order to present the key findings in a summarized manner.

Therefore, it can be stated that effective reflection always requires high level of
objectivity and that is why, it is impossible for an individual to interrupt beliefs and values. Thus,
it can be reflected that with the help of such theories and models of reflection, an individual can
interpret their own experience and determine the ways through which it can be improved. As
there are different theories and models which are also designed in order to generate the best
outcome and reflect upon their own experience.
5.2 Ways through which theories and models of reflection can be applied in reviewing own
practice
There are various ways through which reflection can be applied in their own practice,
thus the models are as mentioned below:
Gibbs reflective model: It is a model which comprises different stages and each one helps
to examine and make sense of their experience so that they can easily adapt the behaviors as
required. Thus, it is a simple and systematic process which is designed to encourage clear
description and evaluation of experience (Maaranen and Stenberg, 2017). However, it has been
also evaluated that the method is not appropriate in all stages because it does not help to
formulate the questions appropriately and this in turn affect the results or experience in negative
manner. Therefore, the model does not account for a difference between tutor and learner’s
expectation and this might create resistant that affect the results.
Rofle, model of reflection: It is another model which is based upon 3 stages i.e. what, so
what and now what which provides a complete details of learner’s experience, along with actions
that can be taken in future. It has been also analyzed that this model is appropriate for the
learners who are developing their skills of reflection where they provide effective and deeper
level of reflection as compared to other methods. It has been critically evaluated that the model is
only used for evaluation purpose with regard to the situation. In the context of chosen area, the
model assists to generate the best outcome for effective results.
Kolb’s reflective cycle: It is another method which is designed in order to reflect the
ways through which helps to describe a person’s progress through four stages of a cycle. The
author also stated that learning as an integrated process with each stage which is being mutually
supported so that effective results can be drawn (Hoa and Tuan, 2019). Thus, it can be evaluated
that it does not provide a deep discussion about an experience within individuals. So, it can be

stated that with the help of effective models of reflection, the learning style can be described and
this in turn shows how the reflection can be performed.
For example: It has been also evaluated that there are different opportunities for learners
to self-reflect which includes reflexive journal, seeking feedback from various sources, Schons
reflection in action etc. Therefore, it can be stated that I would adopt Gibbs reflective model in
order to share the experience and also generate the best outcomes so that I can also raise my
learning as well. On the critically note, I also analyzed that I do not feel theories are enough to
share the learning experience, but I determine future elements of an adaptability on an immediate
situation that is applied to theories and models. That is why, it assists to reflect upon different
point of views regarding a specific situation.

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