Multinational Corporations' Challenge for Global Competitiveness
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In this assignment, we will discuss Expatriate Failure Is A Common Challenge For Multinational corporations (MNCs) and governments increasingly rely on expatriates to function as knowledge transfer agents in today's internationally competitive business environment as foreign investment continues to rise. MNCs often send expatriates back to their home country after sending them abroad for at least a year to work and live in order to finish a certain assignment (Kraimer, et al., 2016). Employers who conduct business abroad must be specially trained and have a thorough awareness of local customs, business dynamics, legal landscapes, and workforce diversity.
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International Journal of Business and Public Administration, Volume 16, Number 1, Spring 2019 27
EXPATRIATE FAILURE IS A COMMON CHALLENGE FOR
MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS: TURN EXPATRIATE
FAILURE TO EXPATRIATE SUCCESS
Semere Haile
Donald White
Grambling State University
ABSTRACT
Research indicates that international work assignments have been, and continue to be, a
growing development for global economic competitiveness driven by multinational corporations
(MNCs) desire. This is not important only for MNCs’ success, but also for societal developmental
sustainability. As global business activities increase, expatriate assignments increase for foreign
subsidiaries. However, the challenge becomes more formidable for expatriates who are
unequipped to succeed. The authors of the current study will elaborate on major reasons for
expatriate failure; suggest plans (expatriate selection and preparation, training and development
needs, and cultural adjustment) that MNCs can use to turn expatriate failure to success. The
authors will also deliver study implications, draw concluding remarks, and suggest
recommendations for future research.
Keywords: Expatriate failure, Reasons for expatriate failure, expatriate selection and preparation, training and
development needs, and expatriate cultural adjustment
INTRODUCTION
As foreign investment continues to grow globally, multinational corporations(MNCs)
and governments become dependent on expatriates to act as knowledge transfer agents in today’s
global competitive business environment. MNCs send expatriates to a foreign country to work
and live for at least one year in order to complete a specific assignment, and then typically
repatriates back to the home country (Kraimer, et al., 2016). Conducting business overseas
requires special trained employees and a deep understanding of the local cultures, business
dynamics, legal environments and workforce diversity. However, expatriates face numerous
challenges associated with adjusting to working and living in culturally diverse countries.
In fact, many MNCs face high-expatriate failure rates. When MNCs expatriate objectives
are not met for their assigned jobs in host countries, the rates of expatriate failure will be
traditionally very high (Tahir, 2018). Research has shown how challenging it could be for
expatriates to work overseas, adjust to new cultures, and understand managerial effectiveness
and decision making in their roles (Matic, et. al., 2016). The jobs of expatriates continue to be a
relevant subject of research in business relations between host countries and MNCs. Many
expatriates return from their international assignments early or have poor job performance. The
criticality and costs associated with expatriates and their reported high failure rates make training
necessary (Peng, 2018).
Expatriates are from parent-country nationals; they are employees from the country of the
company headquarters. Most MNCs usually operate their business overseas through an expatriate
assignment. An expatriate can be defined as “an employee of a parent company who is
transferred for a particular amount of time (from several months to several years) to work in a
branch of an international company located abroad” (Banerjee, Gaur, & Gupta, 2012). In other
EXPATRIATE FAILURE IS A COMMON CHALLENGE FOR
MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS: TURN EXPATRIATE
FAILURE TO EXPATRIATE SUCCESS
Semere Haile
Donald White
Grambling State University
ABSTRACT
Research indicates that international work assignments have been, and continue to be, a
growing development for global economic competitiveness driven by multinational corporations
(MNCs) desire. This is not important only for MNCs’ success, but also for societal developmental
sustainability. As global business activities increase, expatriate assignments increase for foreign
subsidiaries. However, the challenge becomes more formidable for expatriates who are
unequipped to succeed. The authors of the current study will elaborate on major reasons for
expatriate failure; suggest plans (expatriate selection and preparation, training and development
needs, and cultural adjustment) that MNCs can use to turn expatriate failure to success. The
authors will also deliver study implications, draw concluding remarks, and suggest
recommendations for future research.
Keywords: Expatriate failure, Reasons for expatriate failure, expatriate selection and preparation, training and
development needs, and expatriate cultural adjustment
INTRODUCTION
As foreign investment continues to grow globally, multinational corporations(MNCs)
and governments become dependent on expatriates to act as knowledge transfer agents in today’s
global competitive business environment. MNCs send expatriates to a foreign country to work
and live for at least one year in order to complete a specific assignment, and then typically
repatriates back to the home country (Kraimer, et al., 2016). Conducting business overseas
requires special trained employees and a deep understanding of the local cultures, business
dynamics, legal environments and workforce diversity. However, expatriates face numerous
challenges associated with adjusting to working and living in culturally diverse countries.
In fact, many MNCs face high-expatriate failure rates. When MNCs expatriate objectives
are not met for their assigned jobs in host countries, the rates of expatriate failure will be
traditionally very high (Tahir, 2018). Research has shown how challenging it could be for
expatriates to work overseas, adjust to new cultures, and understand managerial effectiveness
and decision making in their roles (Matic, et. al., 2016). The jobs of expatriates continue to be a
relevant subject of research in business relations between host countries and MNCs. Many
expatriates return from their international assignments early or have poor job performance. The
criticality and costs associated with expatriates and their reported high failure rates make training
necessary (Peng, 2018).
Expatriates are from parent-country nationals; they are employees from the country of the
company headquarters. Most MNCs usually operate their business overseas through an expatriate
assignment. An expatriate can be defined as “an employee of a parent company who is
transferred for a particular amount of time (from several months to several years) to work in a
branch of an international company located abroad” (Banerjee, Gaur, & Gupta, 2012). In other
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28 International Journal of Business and Public Administration, Volume 16, Number 1, Spring 2019
words, MNCs locate expatriates to a foreign country to work and live for at least one year in
order to complete a specific assignment, and then typically repatriates back to the home country
(Kraimer, Bolino, & Mead, 2016).
With a given set of capabilities, MNCs employ expatriates as vehicles for the knowledge
transfer from one unit to the other (Musasizi, et. al., 2016). However, the risks of an expatriate’s
staffing family adjustment problems are many. Expatriate failure rates have been traditionally
very high because either his/her job performance is less than expected, or he/she is unable to
adjust to the new host country and culture. Moreover, work-related and family-related problems
also lead to expatriate failure. Expatriates fail because of inadequate education and training or
preparation for his/her international assignments (Tahir, 2018).
According to Witting-Berman and Beutell (2008), there are high costs associated with
expatriate failure and repatriate turnover. Wang (2008) reported that expatriate failure causes a
high level of loss to the employer and may result in loss of market share or hurt the reputation of
an MNC. The survey conducted by GMAC Relocation Trends (Business Editors, 2008) reported
that 21% of expatriates left their companies during the assignments and another 23% left within
a year of returning from the assignment. Therefore, expatriate failure causes a high level of loss
to the employer and may result in loss of market share or hurt the reputation of an MNC (Wang,
2008).
Peng (2018) noted that the cost of each expatriate failure is between $250,000 and
$1,000,000 dollars, which is remarkably high. Other sources noted that the cost of an
unsuccessful expatriate assignment is approximately $100,000 (Misa et al., 1979). Furthermore,
others estimated the cost for each expatriate failure ranges between $40,000 and $1,000,000
(Barbian, 2008).
Recent studies have suggested that 80% of medium-sized and large-sized U.S. employers
are successfully sending expatriates around the world, and 45% expect the number of expatriates
to increase (Black & Gregersen, 1999). In May 2008, a GMAC Relocation Trends survey also
found that despite a slowing economy, 68% of MNCs continued to relocate expatriate employees
at record levels (Deresky, 2011). Also, 54% of the expatriates are being deployed at younger
ages (20-39 years old, up from 41%).
Women represent 21% of those sent overseas, an increase from the historical 15% (Ball
et al., 2010; Haile, Jones, and Emmanuel, 2010). Such an increasing trend of females for
expatriate assignments is a positive sign of progress. Women comprise over 40% of the
employable global workforce, yet women hold only 22% of all expatriate jobs (SHRM, 2014). A
current review of research by Brookfield Global Relocation Services (2016) noted that female
expatriates accounted for 25% of the total. Haile, Jones, and Emmanuel (2016) also noted that
the global average workforce of women is 35% compared to the global average composition of
women in senior management, which is 24%.
Female managers and MNCs have the responsibility to play a role in breaking the
“expatriate glass ceiling.” Women managers who desire expatriate assignments must be more
proactive in managing their careers. MNCs must play a significant role in breaking the
“expatriate glass ceiling” that still exist for women seeking expatriate assignments. The success
level of women for expatriate assignments does not differ from that of their male counterparts
(Taylor & Napier, 1996; Insch, McIntyre, &, Napier, 2008)
The authors of the current study will elaborate on major reasons for expatriate failure;
suggest ways and means (expatriate selection and preparation, training and development needs,
words, MNCs locate expatriates to a foreign country to work and live for at least one year in
order to complete a specific assignment, and then typically repatriates back to the home country
(Kraimer, Bolino, & Mead, 2016).
With a given set of capabilities, MNCs employ expatriates as vehicles for the knowledge
transfer from one unit to the other (Musasizi, et. al., 2016). However, the risks of an expatriate’s
staffing family adjustment problems are many. Expatriate failure rates have been traditionally
very high because either his/her job performance is less than expected, or he/she is unable to
adjust to the new host country and culture. Moreover, work-related and family-related problems
also lead to expatriate failure. Expatriates fail because of inadequate education and training or
preparation for his/her international assignments (Tahir, 2018).
According to Witting-Berman and Beutell (2008), there are high costs associated with
expatriate failure and repatriate turnover. Wang (2008) reported that expatriate failure causes a
high level of loss to the employer and may result in loss of market share or hurt the reputation of
an MNC. The survey conducted by GMAC Relocation Trends (Business Editors, 2008) reported
that 21% of expatriates left their companies during the assignments and another 23% left within
a year of returning from the assignment. Therefore, expatriate failure causes a high level of loss
to the employer and may result in loss of market share or hurt the reputation of an MNC (Wang,
2008).
Peng (2018) noted that the cost of each expatriate failure is between $250,000 and
$1,000,000 dollars, which is remarkably high. Other sources noted that the cost of an
unsuccessful expatriate assignment is approximately $100,000 (Misa et al., 1979). Furthermore,
others estimated the cost for each expatriate failure ranges between $40,000 and $1,000,000
(Barbian, 2008).
Recent studies have suggested that 80% of medium-sized and large-sized U.S. employers
are successfully sending expatriates around the world, and 45% expect the number of expatriates
to increase (Black & Gregersen, 1999). In May 2008, a GMAC Relocation Trends survey also
found that despite a slowing economy, 68% of MNCs continued to relocate expatriate employees
at record levels (Deresky, 2011). Also, 54% of the expatriates are being deployed at younger
ages (20-39 years old, up from 41%).
Women represent 21% of those sent overseas, an increase from the historical 15% (Ball
et al., 2010; Haile, Jones, and Emmanuel, 2010). Such an increasing trend of females for
expatriate assignments is a positive sign of progress. Women comprise over 40% of the
employable global workforce, yet women hold only 22% of all expatriate jobs (SHRM, 2014). A
current review of research by Brookfield Global Relocation Services (2016) noted that female
expatriates accounted for 25% of the total. Haile, Jones, and Emmanuel (2016) also noted that
the global average workforce of women is 35% compared to the global average composition of
women in senior management, which is 24%.
Female managers and MNCs have the responsibility to play a role in breaking the
“expatriate glass ceiling.” Women managers who desire expatriate assignments must be more
proactive in managing their careers. MNCs must play a significant role in breaking the
“expatriate glass ceiling” that still exist for women seeking expatriate assignments. The success
level of women for expatriate assignments does not differ from that of their male counterparts
(Taylor & Napier, 1996; Insch, McIntyre, &, Napier, 2008)
The authors of the current study will elaborate on major reasons for expatriate failure;
suggest ways and means (expatriate selection and preparation, training and development needs,
International Journal of Business and Public Administration, Volume 16, Number 1, Spring 2019 29
and cultural adjustment) that MNCs can use to turn expatriate failure to success. The authors will
also deliver implications, draw concluding remarks, and recommendations for future research.
MAJOR REASONS FOR EXPATRIATE FAILURE
Historically, expatriate failure has been a major concern and the problem persists today.
Forster (1997) defined Expatriate failure as “a premature return” (or ending the international
assignment before the contract ends, or is considered ineffective by senior management, or low
performance and adjustment problems). Forster (1997) expanded the definition of “expatriate
failure” to include underperformance and retention upon completion of the assignment.
There are several reasons why expatriates overseas’ tenure ends in failure. MNCs often
focus on the obvious expatriate failures who return home early instead of going in depth and
focusing more on exploring corporate level concerns in relation to why foreign assignment fail
(Connelly et al., 2007). Mendenhall and Oddou (1985) stated that a major problem in many
MNCs is that HR professionals tend to compare domestic performance with overseas
performance possibilities. Domestic performance and overseas performance potentials are not
the same thing
Reviews of research literature reveals that there is a lack of preparation of expatriates
before departure, improper selection and training, inadequate support to the accompanying
family members, and the expatriate’s inability to adjust to other cultures. A similar review of
research study shows that 57% of expatriates fail due to their inability of adjusting to the new
environment (Olsen & Martins, 2009). Other reasons include family related issues, expatriate’s
and the manager’s inability to cope with responsibility associated with the overseas work
(Heijden et al., 2009)
The literature on expatriate-adjustment consistently confirmed the lack of pre-departure
training for the expatriate and their family (Tung, 1998; Insch et al., 2008). The MNCs normally
identify the skills and knowledge that expatriates have and those needed in the area of operation.
Expatriates who lack the necessary skills or knowledge persist because their MNC did not direct
them into specific training or development (Wild, 2012). Foreign languages are barriers and
frustration for expatriates in host countries. In addition, misunderstanding cultural differences
between home country and host country are important factors to expatriate failure. Expatriate
success depends so much on the entire family’s cultural adjustment; therefore, the spouse should
be included in the preparation training activities. Andreason (2008) explored how international
work experience affect the spouse and children of the expatriates.
Failure of the family to adjust to a new culture is a common reason for expatriates
terminating their international assignments (Shaffer & Harrison, 2006). In reviewing some of the
research literature, the most striking reasons for expatriate failure is the “inability of spouse to
adjust” for U.S. multinational subsidiaries in the host countries (Tung, 1998). Most research into
the matter of expatriate failure concluded that the family situation should be part of the expatriate
selection process. The family members of an expatriate play a critical role in the success or
failure of the international work assignment and living experience. It is important to note that the
ability of a family member (spouse in particular) to adapt to a new culture is a key factor in the
success or failure of an expatriate (Wild, 2012).
If MNCs’ HR professionals do not train “expatriates and their family” with native
language, social behaviors, and cultural norms, both expatriates and their family will face
cultural shock and not a smooth transition to a host country. Ineffective communication system
and cultural adjustment) that MNCs can use to turn expatriate failure to success. The authors will
also deliver implications, draw concluding remarks, and recommendations for future research.
MAJOR REASONS FOR EXPATRIATE FAILURE
Historically, expatriate failure has been a major concern and the problem persists today.
Forster (1997) defined Expatriate failure as “a premature return” (or ending the international
assignment before the contract ends, or is considered ineffective by senior management, or low
performance and adjustment problems). Forster (1997) expanded the definition of “expatriate
failure” to include underperformance and retention upon completion of the assignment.
There are several reasons why expatriates overseas’ tenure ends in failure. MNCs often
focus on the obvious expatriate failures who return home early instead of going in depth and
focusing more on exploring corporate level concerns in relation to why foreign assignment fail
(Connelly et al., 2007). Mendenhall and Oddou (1985) stated that a major problem in many
MNCs is that HR professionals tend to compare domestic performance with overseas
performance possibilities. Domestic performance and overseas performance potentials are not
the same thing
Reviews of research literature reveals that there is a lack of preparation of expatriates
before departure, improper selection and training, inadequate support to the accompanying
family members, and the expatriate’s inability to adjust to other cultures. A similar review of
research study shows that 57% of expatriates fail due to their inability of adjusting to the new
environment (Olsen & Martins, 2009). Other reasons include family related issues, expatriate’s
and the manager’s inability to cope with responsibility associated with the overseas work
(Heijden et al., 2009)
The literature on expatriate-adjustment consistently confirmed the lack of pre-departure
training for the expatriate and their family (Tung, 1998; Insch et al., 2008). The MNCs normally
identify the skills and knowledge that expatriates have and those needed in the area of operation.
Expatriates who lack the necessary skills or knowledge persist because their MNC did not direct
them into specific training or development (Wild, 2012). Foreign languages are barriers and
frustration for expatriates in host countries. In addition, misunderstanding cultural differences
between home country and host country are important factors to expatriate failure. Expatriate
success depends so much on the entire family’s cultural adjustment; therefore, the spouse should
be included in the preparation training activities. Andreason (2008) explored how international
work experience affect the spouse and children of the expatriates.
Failure of the family to adjust to a new culture is a common reason for expatriates
terminating their international assignments (Shaffer & Harrison, 2006). In reviewing some of the
research literature, the most striking reasons for expatriate failure is the “inability of spouse to
adjust” for U.S. multinational subsidiaries in the host countries (Tung, 1998). Most research into
the matter of expatriate failure concluded that the family situation should be part of the expatriate
selection process. The family members of an expatriate play a critical role in the success or
failure of the international work assignment and living experience. It is important to note that the
ability of a family member (spouse in particular) to adapt to a new culture is a key factor in the
success or failure of an expatriate (Wild, 2012).
If MNCs’ HR professionals do not train “expatriates and their family” with native
language, social behaviors, and cultural norms, both expatriates and their family will face
cultural shock and not a smooth transition to a host country. Ineffective communication system
30 International Journal of Business and Public Administration, Volume 16, Number 1, Spring 2019
and lack of coordination between expatriates with their families, who do not accompany them,
will deter expatriate adjustment to an international assignment environment.
TURNING EXPATRIATE FAILURE TO EXPATRIATE SUCCESS
The authors of this study have developed a conceptual model showing selected factors
that could turn expatriate failure to success. Appendix 1 presents these factors, which the authors
have described below:
• Selecting and Preparing Expatriate
• Expatriate Training and Development Needs
• Expatriate Cultural adjustment
Selecting and Preparing Expatriate
Most MNCs use three types of employees: Parent-country nationals, host-country
nationals and third-country nationals to manage their overseas business operations.
Implementing these plans in the staffing process could be a highly difficult challenge in many
cultures (Deresky, 2011). Different scholars have suggested several approaches to enhance
expatriate success in host countries. Major approaches include expatriate selection and
preparation, expatriate training and development, and cultural adjustment.
Wild (2012) defined the expatriate selection as “the process of screening and hiring the
best-qualified applicants with the greatest performance potential.” The selection of expatriate
employees are determined based on the three most important reasons: technical competence,
management development and control (Rocke, 2017). Harvey (1983) attested that expatriate
failure is a result of MNCs improper selection policies to identify qualified candidates who will
succeed in international assignments. To reduce expatriate failure, MNCs should improve
selection procedures, training, adjustment, clearing their roles and screen out inappropriate
candidates in international assignment.
Preparing an expatriate for an overseas job is an exciting opportunity but it is a
challenging experience. It is also a crucial issue for MNCs to compete and succeed globally
because expatriate education and training is necessary in a global market place. There are certain
factors that have greater impact on the success of an expatriate. These factors include staff
recruiting, selection for expatriation, training for expatriates, costs of expatriates, repatriation of
expatriates, motivation and job performance evaluation of expatriates (Kraimer, Wayne, &
Jaworski, 2001).
A review of the family situation should be part of the expatriate selection process Tung
(1998). Yet, in spite of all of the aforementioned, MNCs are facing an increasingly complicated
task in finding, motivating and retaining talented expatriate managers who can handle the
complexity of cultural adjustments in their MNCs (attitude towards work and perception in time)
and personal lives (differences in food, language and weather) in other countries (Selmer, 2005).
This expatriate experience can be fully developed through expatriate assignments and global
corporate career support (Insch, McIntyre, & Napier, 2008; Heijden, Engen, & Paauwe, 2009). In
other words, MNCs need to provide continuous education and training for expatriates and their
families with comprehensive programs, which offer support for the length of the assignment
(Dolgener, 2017).
and lack of coordination between expatriates with their families, who do not accompany them,
will deter expatriate adjustment to an international assignment environment.
TURNING EXPATRIATE FAILURE TO EXPATRIATE SUCCESS
The authors of this study have developed a conceptual model showing selected factors
that could turn expatriate failure to success. Appendix 1 presents these factors, which the authors
have described below:
• Selecting and Preparing Expatriate
• Expatriate Training and Development Needs
• Expatriate Cultural adjustment
Selecting and Preparing Expatriate
Most MNCs use three types of employees: Parent-country nationals, host-country
nationals and third-country nationals to manage their overseas business operations.
Implementing these plans in the staffing process could be a highly difficult challenge in many
cultures (Deresky, 2011). Different scholars have suggested several approaches to enhance
expatriate success in host countries. Major approaches include expatriate selection and
preparation, expatriate training and development, and cultural adjustment.
Wild (2012) defined the expatriate selection as “the process of screening and hiring the
best-qualified applicants with the greatest performance potential.” The selection of expatriate
employees are determined based on the three most important reasons: technical competence,
management development and control (Rocke, 2017). Harvey (1983) attested that expatriate
failure is a result of MNCs improper selection policies to identify qualified candidates who will
succeed in international assignments. To reduce expatriate failure, MNCs should improve
selection procedures, training, adjustment, clearing their roles and screen out inappropriate
candidates in international assignment.
Preparing an expatriate for an overseas job is an exciting opportunity but it is a
challenging experience. It is also a crucial issue for MNCs to compete and succeed globally
because expatriate education and training is necessary in a global market place. There are certain
factors that have greater impact on the success of an expatriate. These factors include staff
recruiting, selection for expatriation, training for expatriates, costs of expatriates, repatriation of
expatriates, motivation and job performance evaluation of expatriates (Kraimer, Wayne, &
Jaworski, 2001).
A review of the family situation should be part of the expatriate selection process Tung
(1998). Yet, in spite of all of the aforementioned, MNCs are facing an increasingly complicated
task in finding, motivating and retaining talented expatriate managers who can handle the
complexity of cultural adjustments in their MNCs (attitude towards work and perception in time)
and personal lives (differences in food, language and weather) in other countries (Selmer, 2005).
This expatriate experience can be fully developed through expatriate assignments and global
corporate career support (Insch, McIntyre, & Napier, 2008; Heijden, Engen, & Paauwe, 2009). In
other words, MNCs need to provide continuous education and training for expatriates and their
families with comprehensive programs, which offer support for the length of the assignment
(Dolgener, 2017).
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International Journal of Business and Public Administration, Volume 16, Number 1, Spring 2019 31
MNCs play an important role in the globalization of business processes. This rapid
globalization of world markets since the 1970s was a great opportunity for international
companies to become known and to operate from a global point of view. This observable fact led
to the possibility that many of the managers who served in the parent company could be
transferred to host country nations, which are characterized by different cultures and work
processes (Giorgi et al., 2016). Such a transfer to overseas involves adapting oneself to new job
tasks, roles and foreign environment. Work adjustments could be easier if there are similarities
between parent and the host subsidiary in terms of procedures, policies and task requirements
(Black & Gregersen, 1999).
Challenges and existing problems faced by expatriate assignments are becoming
inseparable from the various new challenges in the field of management, including those related
to the importance of international human resource management (IHRM) who are processing the
expatriation process and management thereof (Sarkiunaite & Rocke, 2015). In fact, human
relations skills are almost always equally significant at all levels of management. This
development signals that the demand for skilled employees and managers for international
assignments continue to increase. Employers become encouraged to hire more people with the
culture and language skills needed to deal with the expanding operations outside the national
borders.
As the trends for globalizing businesses have increased, so have new opportunities for
new business enterprises globally. The demands for expatriate professionals are also increasing
in MNCs foreign operations. As a result, Herrera (2005) noted that the need for more expatriate
employee assignments has become more important than ever. Their geographical relocations are
rising to record levels, resulting in more expatriate workforce demand by international
companies to live abroad. Herrera also noted that many international companies need to deal
with the problems and difficulties for expatriate assignments in different ways. These companies
need to take an important role in preparing potential expatriates for exciting opportunities but
challenging experiences abroad.
The human resource departments in international companies should create and support an
effective workforce training and development program to help expatriates succeed in
international assignments (Heijden, Engen & Paauwe, 2009). In doing so, the rising number of
skilled employees can be transferred to foreign countries to fill the void for expatriates needed to
manage the operations of international companies (Olsen & Martins, 2009).
The jobs of expatriates are important to both host country and international companies.
They are also challenging as a result of differences in cultural and work processes between the
host and home countries (Sims & Schraeder, 2005). Therefore, it becomes a critical issue that
international companies need to make sure that the expatriates they send overseas are the best
persons and as such, must take careful measures to select the best candidates for expatriate roles
(Pokharel, 2016). HR professionals need to offer realistic information about what it is like to live
and work in a given situation. The expatriate needs information about his or her role in
international assignment as well as the rewards, benefits and costs associated with the
assignments.
This is because the method and process for recruitment and selection for expatriates are
becoming expensive for international companies. The investment in recruiting and selection of
expatriates should meet the desired MNCs goals relative to expected returns. In general, most
research into the matter has concluded that expatriate failure rates are high. In addition,
expatriates are expensive. For example, the cost of a three-year international assignment can
MNCs play an important role in the globalization of business processes. This rapid
globalization of world markets since the 1970s was a great opportunity for international
companies to become known and to operate from a global point of view. This observable fact led
to the possibility that many of the managers who served in the parent company could be
transferred to host country nations, which are characterized by different cultures and work
processes (Giorgi et al., 2016). Such a transfer to overseas involves adapting oneself to new job
tasks, roles and foreign environment. Work adjustments could be easier if there are similarities
between parent and the host subsidiary in terms of procedures, policies and task requirements
(Black & Gregersen, 1999).
Challenges and existing problems faced by expatriate assignments are becoming
inseparable from the various new challenges in the field of management, including those related
to the importance of international human resource management (IHRM) who are processing the
expatriation process and management thereof (Sarkiunaite & Rocke, 2015). In fact, human
relations skills are almost always equally significant at all levels of management. This
development signals that the demand for skilled employees and managers for international
assignments continue to increase. Employers become encouraged to hire more people with the
culture and language skills needed to deal with the expanding operations outside the national
borders.
As the trends for globalizing businesses have increased, so have new opportunities for
new business enterprises globally. The demands for expatriate professionals are also increasing
in MNCs foreign operations. As a result, Herrera (2005) noted that the need for more expatriate
employee assignments has become more important than ever. Their geographical relocations are
rising to record levels, resulting in more expatriate workforce demand by international
companies to live abroad. Herrera also noted that many international companies need to deal
with the problems and difficulties for expatriate assignments in different ways. These companies
need to take an important role in preparing potential expatriates for exciting opportunities but
challenging experiences abroad.
The human resource departments in international companies should create and support an
effective workforce training and development program to help expatriates succeed in
international assignments (Heijden, Engen & Paauwe, 2009). In doing so, the rising number of
skilled employees can be transferred to foreign countries to fill the void for expatriates needed to
manage the operations of international companies (Olsen & Martins, 2009).
The jobs of expatriates are important to both host country and international companies.
They are also challenging as a result of differences in cultural and work processes between the
host and home countries (Sims & Schraeder, 2005). Therefore, it becomes a critical issue that
international companies need to make sure that the expatriates they send overseas are the best
persons and as such, must take careful measures to select the best candidates for expatriate roles
(Pokharel, 2016). HR professionals need to offer realistic information about what it is like to live
and work in a given situation. The expatriate needs information about his or her role in
international assignment as well as the rewards, benefits and costs associated with the
assignments.
This is because the method and process for recruitment and selection for expatriates are
becoming expensive for international companies. The investment in recruiting and selection of
expatriates should meet the desired MNCs goals relative to expected returns. In general, most
research into the matter has concluded that expatriate failure rates are high. In addition,
expatriates are expensive. For example, the cost of a three-year international assignment can
32 International Journal of Business and Public Administration, Volume 16, Number 1, Spring 2019
easily exceed $3 million. Yet, many MNCs fail to get it right. Despite their significant
investments in international assignments, companies still report a 42% failure rate in expatriate’s
assignments (SHRM, 2017).
Expatriate Training and Development Needs
As MNCs continue their international business expansion, there are challenges related to
the necessity of managing their expatriates within different host countries. These host countries
are located at far distances. They have different economic conditions, people, technology,
marketing sizes, and laws. Also, they have significant cultural differences existing within the
nations. The differences in cultures across MNCs within countries are larger than the differences
across countries (Noe et al., 2019).
According to Noe, development and training provides opportunities for expatriate
employees to grow their skills. At the same time, it also help grow their contributions to high
levels of engagement and satisfaction. In other words, conducting business in a foreign country
requires a deep understanding of the local cultural values, business dynamics, and legal
environment. MNCs’ success with global expansions and operations demonstrates the enhanced
needs to manage their worldwide expatriate staff effectively and efficiently (Selmer & Fenner,
2009).
As more international companies continue to globalize their operations, it is important to
identify training needs and support training for high potential expatriate managers to take over
global leadership positions (Noe, et al., 2019). Research reviews have also indicated that the
demand for experienced and competent global managers is growing rapidly and companies could
use more than the current supply (Rocke, 2017). It is also noted that the demand for expatriate
employees with international experience is increasing (Insch, McIntyre & Napier, 2008). If the
demands are met, MNCs will be able to meet the need to manage, control, coordinate and
integrate operations between the home company and the host countries.
Cultural Adjustment for Expatriation
Cultural intelligence is becoming a necessity for effective MNC operation. The use of
host-country nationals by MNCs is increasing, not only because they are normally less expensive
of the three types of MNCs’ workforce, but because they do not need to be relocated or undergo
adjustment training in the culture, language, or tax laws of the host country. On the other hand,
both the expatriate and third-country nationals would have to be relocated and normally undergo
more difficult challenges for adjustment training and development programs (Selmer, 2005).
It is usually a combination of work-related and family-related problems that lead to
expatriate failure (Peng, 2018). As Selmer (2005) noted, there must be a better way to train
expatriates to adjust to other countries’ local culture, customs, language, and government. In
other words, the key to a successful international assignment is a combination of training and
career management for the employee and the employee’s family (Noe et. al., 2019).
Cavusgil, Knight, and Riesenberger (2012) also stated that the process for expatriate
assignments should include measuring a person’s ability to bridge cultural differences
(understanding other groups). It is also noted that cultural sensitivity (differences exist between
cultures, but not assigning values to the differences) should be included in the criteria of
selection.
easily exceed $3 million. Yet, many MNCs fail to get it right. Despite their significant
investments in international assignments, companies still report a 42% failure rate in expatriate’s
assignments (SHRM, 2017).
Expatriate Training and Development Needs
As MNCs continue their international business expansion, there are challenges related to
the necessity of managing their expatriates within different host countries. These host countries
are located at far distances. They have different economic conditions, people, technology,
marketing sizes, and laws. Also, they have significant cultural differences existing within the
nations. The differences in cultures across MNCs within countries are larger than the differences
across countries (Noe et al., 2019).
According to Noe, development and training provides opportunities for expatriate
employees to grow their skills. At the same time, it also help grow their contributions to high
levels of engagement and satisfaction. In other words, conducting business in a foreign country
requires a deep understanding of the local cultural values, business dynamics, and legal
environment. MNCs’ success with global expansions and operations demonstrates the enhanced
needs to manage their worldwide expatriate staff effectively and efficiently (Selmer & Fenner,
2009).
As more international companies continue to globalize their operations, it is important to
identify training needs and support training for high potential expatriate managers to take over
global leadership positions (Noe, et al., 2019). Research reviews have also indicated that the
demand for experienced and competent global managers is growing rapidly and companies could
use more than the current supply (Rocke, 2017). It is also noted that the demand for expatriate
employees with international experience is increasing (Insch, McIntyre & Napier, 2008). If the
demands are met, MNCs will be able to meet the need to manage, control, coordinate and
integrate operations between the home company and the host countries.
Cultural Adjustment for Expatriation
Cultural intelligence is becoming a necessity for effective MNC operation. The use of
host-country nationals by MNCs is increasing, not only because they are normally less expensive
of the three types of MNCs’ workforce, but because they do not need to be relocated or undergo
adjustment training in the culture, language, or tax laws of the host country. On the other hand,
both the expatriate and third-country nationals would have to be relocated and normally undergo
more difficult challenges for adjustment training and development programs (Selmer, 2005).
It is usually a combination of work-related and family-related problems that lead to
expatriate failure (Peng, 2018). As Selmer (2005) noted, there must be a better way to train
expatriates to adjust to other countries’ local culture, customs, language, and government. In
other words, the key to a successful international assignment is a combination of training and
career management for the employee and the employee’s family (Noe et. al., 2019).
Cavusgil, Knight, and Riesenberger (2012) also stated that the process for expatriate
assignments should include measuring a person’s ability to bridge cultural differences
(understanding other groups). It is also noted that cultural sensitivity (differences exist between
cultures, but not assigning values to the differences) should be included in the criteria of
selection.
International Journal of Business and Public Administration, Volume 16, Number 1, Spring 2019 33
As noted before, expatriates for international assignments normally have the difficult task
of adjusting to a new cultural situation. MNCs must help provide the competencies required for
expatriates to adjust to cross-cultural work assignments in order to increase the likelihood of
success. They are also facing greater challenges in filling expatriates opting out of foreign
assignments due to family and dual-career concerns (Harvey & Wiese, 1998). Reviews of
research on the field of international HR management literature have reported that availability of
corporate career support with the goal of the retention of expatriates have become a significant
determinant in terms of international business success (Heijiden, et al., 2009; Tung, 1998; Paine,
2010).
The argument was that the standardized approach to managing international assignment
was difficult due to national cultural dynamics (Cascio & Boudreau, 2016). The requirements for
expatriates must be the ability to adapt to a new way of life in the host country is often an
extreme challenge (Wild, 2012). The expatriate adjustment to new cultural differences, which
affect his/her attitudes and behaviors are factors for overall MNCs success.
In his study of Taiwanese financial institution expatriates in the U.S., Lee (2005) found
that expatriate adjustment was enhanced with greater satisfaction at the host country. Given the
associations between job satisfaction and cross-cultural adjustment, MNCs need to ensure that
they have human resource policies and practice to support job satisfaction of their expatriates
while abroad” (Lee, 2005: 278). MNCs also have the option to train the local workforce in their
(company) culture during growth in global markets (Noe, et al., 2019).
IMPLICATIONS
Expatriates play an important role in the business operation abroad and as noted before,
they are very expensive human resource. Some expatriates have become very successful while
others have failed. There are different reasons why international assignments end in failure
(Olsen & Martins, 2009). HR professionals need to recognize the signs of potential expatriate
assignment failures and their impact on the business and long-term objectives of the MNCs. HR
professionals of MNCs need to create and support effective workforce development programs to
help expatriate employees’ adjustment to the international assignment which will lead them to
succeed in their international assignments, and meet MNC goals.
MNCs need to prepare high potential managers to take over global leadership positions
(Noe, et al., 2019). Once the MNC select an expatriate employee for international assignment, it
is necessary to prepare that manager for the upcoming overseas assignments. It is the
responsibility of MNCs HR professionals to help the expatriate’s family adjust to a new foreign
language and cultural environment. The objective is to make sure that expatriates adjust as soon
as possible through training and development before departure from the host country and after
arrival on their new international assignment begins, in order to develop MNCs goals (Paine,
2010).
Human resource professionals should enhance discussion and communication between
expatriates and their families to increase the exchange of views among family members. By
doing so, it reduces conflicts and disagreements arising from international assignments. In other
words, sufficient communication between family members can reduce potential conflicts and
enable expatriates to adapt and adjust to overseas life and the work environment in order to
perform effectively and efficiently (Haile ,Jones, & Emmanuel, 2010; Wang, 2008). MNCs’ HR
As noted before, expatriates for international assignments normally have the difficult task
of adjusting to a new cultural situation. MNCs must help provide the competencies required for
expatriates to adjust to cross-cultural work assignments in order to increase the likelihood of
success. They are also facing greater challenges in filling expatriates opting out of foreign
assignments due to family and dual-career concerns (Harvey & Wiese, 1998). Reviews of
research on the field of international HR management literature have reported that availability of
corporate career support with the goal of the retention of expatriates have become a significant
determinant in terms of international business success (Heijiden, et al., 2009; Tung, 1998; Paine,
2010).
The argument was that the standardized approach to managing international assignment
was difficult due to national cultural dynamics (Cascio & Boudreau, 2016). The requirements for
expatriates must be the ability to adapt to a new way of life in the host country is often an
extreme challenge (Wild, 2012). The expatriate adjustment to new cultural differences, which
affect his/her attitudes and behaviors are factors for overall MNCs success.
In his study of Taiwanese financial institution expatriates in the U.S., Lee (2005) found
that expatriate adjustment was enhanced with greater satisfaction at the host country. Given the
associations between job satisfaction and cross-cultural adjustment, MNCs need to ensure that
they have human resource policies and practice to support job satisfaction of their expatriates
while abroad” (Lee, 2005: 278). MNCs also have the option to train the local workforce in their
(company) culture during growth in global markets (Noe, et al., 2019).
IMPLICATIONS
Expatriates play an important role in the business operation abroad and as noted before,
they are very expensive human resource. Some expatriates have become very successful while
others have failed. There are different reasons why international assignments end in failure
(Olsen & Martins, 2009). HR professionals need to recognize the signs of potential expatriate
assignment failures and their impact on the business and long-term objectives of the MNCs. HR
professionals of MNCs need to create and support effective workforce development programs to
help expatriate employees’ adjustment to the international assignment which will lead them to
succeed in their international assignments, and meet MNC goals.
MNCs need to prepare high potential managers to take over global leadership positions
(Noe, et al., 2019). Once the MNC select an expatriate employee for international assignment, it
is necessary to prepare that manager for the upcoming overseas assignments. It is the
responsibility of MNCs HR professionals to help the expatriate’s family adjust to a new foreign
language and cultural environment. The objective is to make sure that expatriates adjust as soon
as possible through training and development before departure from the host country and after
arrival on their new international assignment begins, in order to develop MNCs goals (Paine,
2010).
Human resource professionals should enhance discussion and communication between
expatriates and their families to increase the exchange of views among family members. By
doing so, it reduces conflicts and disagreements arising from international assignments. In other
words, sufficient communication between family members can reduce potential conflicts and
enable expatriates to adapt and adjust to overseas life and the work environment in order to
perform effectively and efficiently (Haile ,Jones, & Emmanuel, 2010; Wang, 2008). MNCs’ HR
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34 International Journal of Business and Public Administration, Volume 16, Number 1, Spring 2019
professionals must train “expatriates and their family” with native language, social behaviors,
and cultural norms to avoid cultural shock and ease transition to a host country.
As Benson and Pattie (2008) recommended, MNCs should consider expatriates
opportunities, and how these opportunities will be valuable to the MNCs. The opportunities for
expatriates include acquiring new knowledge and skills, including leadership skills, knowledge
of international business and international technical skills which are significant factors to operate
international business successfully. On the other hand, failure to retain valued repatriates does
not only make the company’s huge financial investment in the international assignment
meaningless, but also brings other serious nonfinancial losses. The retention of expatriate failures
increases the difficulty of recruiting key personnel into future international assignment (Shen &
Hall, 2009).
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The importance and increasing use of international work assignments have made
expatriates a topic of great interest for HR professionals and researchers (Benson & Pattie,
2008). Rocke (2017) understood expatriation as an assignment for work overseas for an amount
of time. Pokharel (2016) reported that most of the research problems being conducted are among
expatriates who are sent from the headquarters to foreign subsidiary with the objective that goals
are met on assignment. The competitive and challenging experiences from cultural norms,
political environments, policies and practices between the host and home countries are designed
to impact employee attitudes and behaviors (Jaina et al., 2012).
Cultural and language differences, challenges, family issues, illness, unsuited for
position, etc., depending on the country, contributes to expatriate failure. Expatriate failure
usually represents a failure of MNCs’ selection policies to identify individuals who will not
succeed in an international assignment (Harvey, 1983). One way to reduce expatriate failure is
by improving selection procedures, training, adjustment, clearing their roles and screen out
inappropriate candidates in international assignments.
In order for expatriates to survive, cope, and succeed, they need to be trained in the areas
of culture, language, and practical day-to-day matters (Kraimer et al., 2016 & Cascio, 2019).
Practical training and development should occur prior to expatriate departure to work in
different cultures abroad. Training provides opportunity for expatriate employees to promote
their skills, and also contributes to achieve high levels of their engagement and satisfaction (Noe
et al., 2019).
As Wang (2008) noted, MNCs must comprehensively train those employees who are
assigned overseas to improve their work achievements and cross-cultural adjustment. Proper
expatriate training or briefing for a start should be given to expatriate employees before they
depart. Pre-departure training need to be revised for increased attention to expatriate issues of
spouse and family needs. A continued research on the subject matter should focus on the roles of
expatriates for adaptation to the environment with an explicit developmental goal and plan.
As Pokharel (2016) suggested, the expatriate experience in every country is not the same;
therefore, a different training in language, cultural, practical training must be conducted to
challenge the adjustment to have far less tension and cultural shock. Moreover, continuous
training should be provided during and after the international assignment. The most striking
reasons for expatriate failure is the “inability of spouse to adjust” for U.S. multinational
subsidiaries in the host countries (Tung, 1998). Most research into the matter of expatriate failure
professionals must train “expatriates and their family” with native language, social behaviors,
and cultural norms to avoid cultural shock and ease transition to a host country.
As Benson and Pattie (2008) recommended, MNCs should consider expatriates
opportunities, and how these opportunities will be valuable to the MNCs. The opportunities for
expatriates include acquiring new knowledge and skills, including leadership skills, knowledge
of international business and international technical skills which are significant factors to operate
international business successfully. On the other hand, failure to retain valued repatriates does
not only make the company’s huge financial investment in the international assignment
meaningless, but also brings other serious nonfinancial losses. The retention of expatriate failures
increases the difficulty of recruiting key personnel into future international assignment (Shen &
Hall, 2009).
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The importance and increasing use of international work assignments have made
expatriates a topic of great interest for HR professionals and researchers (Benson & Pattie,
2008). Rocke (2017) understood expatriation as an assignment for work overseas for an amount
of time. Pokharel (2016) reported that most of the research problems being conducted are among
expatriates who are sent from the headquarters to foreign subsidiary with the objective that goals
are met on assignment. The competitive and challenging experiences from cultural norms,
political environments, policies and practices between the host and home countries are designed
to impact employee attitudes and behaviors (Jaina et al., 2012).
Cultural and language differences, challenges, family issues, illness, unsuited for
position, etc., depending on the country, contributes to expatriate failure. Expatriate failure
usually represents a failure of MNCs’ selection policies to identify individuals who will not
succeed in an international assignment (Harvey, 1983). One way to reduce expatriate failure is
by improving selection procedures, training, adjustment, clearing their roles and screen out
inappropriate candidates in international assignments.
In order for expatriates to survive, cope, and succeed, they need to be trained in the areas
of culture, language, and practical day-to-day matters (Kraimer et al., 2016 & Cascio, 2019).
Practical training and development should occur prior to expatriate departure to work in
different cultures abroad. Training provides opportunity for expatriate employees to promote
their skills, and also contributes to achieve high levels of their engagement and satisfaction (Noe
et al., 2019).
As Wang (2008) noted, MNCs must comprehensively train those employees who are
assigned overseas to improve their work achievements and cross-cultural adjustment. Proper
expatriate training or briefing for a start should be given to expatriate employees before they
depart. Pre-departure training need to be revised for increased attention to expatriate issues of
spouse and family needs. A continued research on the subject matter should focus on the roles of
expatriates for adaptation to the environment with an explicit developmental goal and plan.
As Pokharel (2016) suggested, the expatriate experience in every country is not the same;
therefore, a different training in language, cultural, practical training must be conducted to
challenge the adjustment to have far less tension and cultural shock. Moreover, continuous
training should be provided during and after the international assignment. The most striking
reasons for expatriate failure is the “inability of spouse to adjust” for U.S. multinational
subsidiaries in the host countries (Tung, 1998). Most research into the matter of expatriate failure
International Journal of Business and Public Administration, Volume 16, Number 1, Spring 2019 35
concluded that the family situation should be part of the expatriate selection process. Educating
expatriate employees and their families who are to be sent to a foreign country would ease them
into day-to-day life to do his/her jobs in the host country.
HR professionals need to nurture and develop expatriate employees. They are supposed
to provide all applicable training and development to expatriates with the information of the
parent company and all necessary support and help. The lack of communication and networking
between the head office and the rest of the subsidiaries as well as subsidiaries in other countries
further reflects the failure of international assignment (Pokharel, 2016).
Another critical dimension of the process that has not been thoroughly delineated is the
impact of these expatriate failures on the careers of the expatriates themselves. Theoretically,
these failures could have compounding effects on losses associated with expenditures related
directly to the expatriate and the loss of future contributions to MNCs.
RECOMMENDATIN FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
Future research could reveal “new insights” concerning the importance of expatriation to
avoid the rates of expatriates returning home early before they complete their assignments. As
Rocke (2017) suggested, MNCs can pay attention to the improvement of the process of
expatriation by paying careful attention and doing an in- depth analysis of their mistakes to find
the best solution. Future research could revise the expatriate selection and the preparation
process, expatriate training development needs, and the expatriate cultural adjustment.
REFERENCES
Andreason, A. W. (2008). Expatriate adjustment of spouses and expatriate managers: An
integrative research review. International Journal of Management, 25 (2), 382-393.
Ball, D.A., Geringer, J.M., Minor, M.S., & McNett, J.M. (2010). International business: The
challenge of global competition, (12 th eds.) New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Irwin, Chapter
19.
Benson, G.S., & Pattie, M. (September 2008). Is expatriation good for my career? The impact of
expatriate assignments on perceived and career outcomes. International Journal of
Human Resource Management,19 (9), 1636-1653.
Banerjee, P., Gaur, J., & Gupta, R. (2012). Exploring the role of the spouse in expatriate failure:
A grounded theory-based investigation of expatriate spouse adjustment issues from India.
The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 23(17): 3559-3577.
Barbian, J. (March-April 2008). Return to sender: K. Yeaton & N. Hall. Expatriates: Reducing
the failure rates. Journal of Corporate Accounting and Finance, 75-78.
Black, J.S., & Gregersen, H. (March-April Issue, 1999). The right way to manage expats.
International Business, no page numbers.
Brookfield Global Relocation Service. (2016). 2016 global mobility trends survey.
concluded that the family situation should be part of the expatriate selection process. Educating
expatriate employees and their families who are to be sent to a foreign country would ease them
into day-to-day life to do his/her jobs in the host country.
HR professionals need to nurture and develop expatriate employees. They are supposed
to provide all applicable training and development to expatriates with the information of the
parent company and all necessary support and help. The lack of communication and networking
between the head office and the rest of the subsidiaries as well as subsidiaries in other countries
further reflects the failure of international assignment (Pokharel, 2016).
Another critical dimension of the process that has not been thoroughly delineated is the
impact of these expatriate failures on the careers of the expatriates themselves. Theoretically,
these failures could have compounding effects on losses associated with expenditures related
directly to the expatriate and the loss of future contributions to MNCs.
RECOMMENDATIN FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
Future research could reveal “new insights” concerning the importance of expatriation to
avoid the rates of expatriates returning home early before they complete their assignments. As
Rocke (2017) suggested, MNCs can pay attention to the improvement of the process of
expatriation by paying careful attention and doing an in- depth analysis of their mistakes to find
the best solution. Future research could revise the expatriate selection and the preparation
process, expatriate training development needs, and the expatriate cultural adjustment.
REFERENCES
Andreason, A. W. (2008). Expatriate adjustment of spouses and expatriate managers: An
integrative research review. International Journal of Management, 25 (2), 382-393.
Ball, D.A., Geringer, J.M., Minor, M.S., & McNett, J.M. (2010). International business: The
challenge of global competition, (12 th eds.) New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Irwin, Chapter
19.
Benson, G.S., & Pattie, M. (September 2008). Is expatriation good for my career? The impact of
expatriate assignments on perceived and career outcomes. International Journal of
Human Resource Management,19 (9), 1636-1653.
Banerjee, P., Gaur, J., & Gupta, R. (2012). Exploring the role of the spouse in expatriate failure:
A grounded theory-based investigation of expatriate spouse adjustment issues from India.
The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 23(17): 3559-3577.
Barbian, J. (March-April 2008). Return to sender: K. Yeaton & N. Hall. Expatriates: Reducing
the failure rates. Journal of Corporate Accounting and Finance, 75-78.
Black, J.S., & Gregersen, H. (March-April Issue, 1999). The right way to manage expats.
International Business, no page numbers.
Brookfield Global Relocation Service. (2016). 2016 global mobility trends survey.
36 International Journal of Business and Public Administration, Volume 16, Number 1, Spring 2019
Caligiuri, P.M., & Tung, R. (1999). Comparing the success of male and female expatriates from
a US-based company. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 10: 163-
179.
Capturing Talent. (August 18, 2007). The Economist, 59-61.
Cascio, W. F. (2019). Managing human resource, (11th eds.) NY: McGraw Hill Education,
Chapter 16.
Cavusgil, S.T., Knight, G., & Riesenberger, J.R. (2012). International business: The new
realities, (2nd eds.) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, Chapter 19.
Connelly, B., Hitt, M.A., DeNisi, A.S., & Ireland, R.D. (2007). Expatriates and corporate-level
international strategy: Governing with the knowledge contract. Management Decision, 45
(3): 564-78.
Dolgener, R.N. (February 22, 2017). Guide to expatriate education and training. From
www.business. Com
Deresky, H. (2011). International management: Managing across borders and cultures, (7th eds.)
Upper Saddle River, New York: Prentice Hall, Chapter 9.
Forster, N. (1997). The persistent myth of high expatriate failure rates. International Journal of
Human Resource Management, 8(4), 430-445.
Giorgi, G., Montani, F., Fiz-Perez, J., Arcangeli, G., & Mucci, N. (2016). Expatriates’ multiple
fears, from terrorism to working conditions: Development of a model. Frontiers in
Psychology, 1-17; From 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01571
Haile, S., Jones, M.D., & Emmanuel, T. (2010). Why international assignments end in failure?
Situational factors impacting expatriate success and failure in focus. European Journal of
Management, 10 (2), 49-53.
Haile, S., Emmanuel, T, & Dzathor, A. (Summer 2016). Barriers and challenges confronting
women for leadership and management position: Review and Analysis. International
Journal of Business and Public Administration, 13(1), 36-51.
Harvey, M., & Wiese, D. (1998). Global dual-career couple mentoring: A phase model approach.
Human Resource Planning, 21 (2), 33-48.
Harvey, M. G. (1983). The multinational corporation’s expatriate problem: An application of
Murphy’s Law. Business Horizons, 26, 71-78.
Caligiuri, P.M., & Tung, R. (1999). Comparing the success of male and female expatriates from
a US-based company. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 10: 163-
179.
Capturing Talent. (August 18, 2007). The Economist, 59-61.
Cascio, W. F. (2019). Managing human resource, (11th eds.) NY: McGraw Hill Education,
Chapter 16.
Cavusgil, S.T., Knight, G., & Riesenberger, J.R. (2012). International business: The new
realities, (2nd eds.) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, Chapter 19.
Connelly, B., Hitt, M.A., DeNisi, A.S., & Ireland, R.D. (2007). Expatriates and corporate-level
international strategy: Governing with the knowledge contract. Management Decision, 45
(3): 564-78.
Dolgener, R.N. (February 22, 2017). Guide to expatriate education and training. From
www.business. Com
Deresky, H. (2011). International management: Managing across borders and cultures, (7th eds.)
Upper Saddle River, New York: Prentice Hall, Chapter 9.
Forster, N. (1997). The persistent myth of high expatriate failure rates. International Journal of
Human Resource Management, 8(4), 430-445.
Giorgi, G., Montani, F., Fiz-Perez, J., Arcangeli, G., & Mucci, N. (2016). Expatriates’ multiple
fears, from terrorism to working conditions: Development of a model. Frontiers in
Psychology, 1-17; From 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01571
Haile, S., Jones, M.D., & Emmanuel, T. (2010). Why international assignments end in failure?
Situational factors impacting expatriate success and failure in focus. European Journal of
Management, 10 (2), 49-53.
Haile, S., Emmanuel, T, & Dzathor, A. (Summer 2016). Barriers and challenges confronting
women for leadership and management position: Review and Analysis. International
Journal of Business and Public Administration, 13(1), 36-51.
Harvey, M., & Wiese, D. (1998). Global dual-career couple mentoring: A phase model approach.
Human Resource Planning, 21 (2), 33-48.
Harvey, M. G. (1983). The multinational corporation’s expatriate problem: An application of
Murphy’s Law. Business Horizons, 26, 71-78.
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International Journal of Business and Public Administration, Volume 16, Number 1, Spring 2019 37
Heijden, J.A.V. van der, Engen, M.L. van, & Paauwe, J. (2009). Expatriate career support:
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factors on expatriate adjustment and performance: The moderating effect of psychology
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expatriate assignments. From www.mercer.com/summary.htm.
Mendenhall, M., & Oddou, G. (1985). The dimensions of expatriate acculturation: Academy of
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it with you: Individual differences and expatriate effectiveness. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 91, 109-125.
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contextual factors and common practices. Career Development International, 10, 98-108.
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River, NJ: Pearson, Chapter 14.
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knowledge transfer and competitive advantage of the foreign direct investments in
Uganda’s service sector. International Journal of Economics, Commerce and
Management, IV (2): 130-143.
Noe, R. A., Hollenbeck, J. R., Gerhart, B., & Wright, P. M. (2019). Human resource
Management, (11th eds.) McGraw-Hill, New York NY, Chapter 15.
Olsen, J.E., & Martins, L.L. (March-April 2009). The effects of expatriate demographic
characteristics on adjustment: A social identity approach. Human Resource Management,
48 (2), 311-328.
Paine, L.S. (June 2010). The China rules. Harvard Business Review.
Peng, M.W. (2018). Global business. Boston, MA: Cengage, Chapter 13.
Pokharel, R. (April 18, 2016). Triumph over failure of expatriate in international assignments
from the international human resource management perspective. International Journal of
Business and Management, II, (5), 310-314.
Rocke, D. (May 12-13, 2017). Expatriation: Challenges and success factors of an international
career. Rural Environment. Education. Personality: 2255-808X, 451-456.
Sarkiunaite, I., & Rocke, D. (2015). The expatriate experience: The factors of international
assignment success. Transformations in Business & Economics, 14 (34), 20-46.
Selmer, J., & Fenner, C.R. (2009). Job factors and work outcomes of public sector expatriates.
Human Resource Management Journal, 19 (1), 75-90.
Selmer, J. (2005). Cross-cultural training and expatriate adjustment in China: Western venture
managers. Personnel Review, 34 (1), 68-84.
Shafer, M., Harrison, D.A., Gregersen, J.H., Black, J.S., & Ferzandi, L.A. ((2006). You can take
it with you: Individual differences and expatriate effectiveness. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 91, 109-125.
Shen, Y., & Hall, D.T. (September-October 2009). When expatriates explore other options:
Retaining talent through greater job embeddedness and repatriation adjustment, 48 (5),
793-816.
Sims, R. H., & Schraeder M. (20005). Expatriate compensation: An exploratory review of salient
contextual factors and common practices. Career Development International, 10, 98-108.
International Journal of Business and Public Administration, Volume 16, Number 1, Spring 2019 39
SHRM, Society for Human Resource Management (May 1, 2017). Managing international
assignments.
SHRM, Society for Human Resource Management (January 1, 2014). Managing international
assignments.
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Human Resource Management Review,8, 23-37.
Wang, I-Ming. (2008). The relationship between expatriate management and the mentality and
adjustment of expatriates. Social Behavior and Personality, 36 (7), 865-882
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management of repatriates: The boundaryless career concepts. International journal of
Management, 26, 77-88.
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About the Authors:
Semere Haile is Interim Head Department of Management and Marketing in the College of Business and Ben
Johnson Endowed Professor in Business in the College of Business at Grambling State University. Dr. Haile’s
research covers a range of international topics. He has published in many journals including European Journal of
Management, Journal of Education Research, International Journal of Business and Public Administration,
International Journal of Business Research.
Donald White is an Assistant Professor of Management in the College of Business at Grambling State University.
Dr. White holds an MBA and Doctorate of Business Administration (DBA) from Louisiana Tech University. He is
the current Dean of the College of Business at Grambling State University and his research interests are primarily
Human Resources Management.
SHRM, Society for Human Resource Management (May 1, 2017). Managing international
assignments.
SHRM, Society for Human Resource Management (January 1, 2014). Managing international
assignments.
Taylor, S., & Napier, N.K. (1996). Working in Japan: Lessons from western expatriates. Sloan
Management Review, 37, 76-84.
Tahir, R. (2018). Cross-cultural training: a crucial approach to improve the success of expatriate
assignment in the United Arab Emirates. Middle East Journal Management, 5 (1), 50-74.
Tung, R.L. (1998). A contingency framework of selection and training of expatriates revisited.
Human Resource Management Review,8, 23-37.
Wang, I-Ming. (2008). The relationship between expatriate management and the mentality and
adjustment of expatriates. Social Behavior and Personality, 36 (7), 865-882
“Where are women in the expatriate workforce?” (January 1, 2014). From https://www.shrm.org
Wild, J.J., & Wild, K.L. (2012). International Business, (6th eds.) Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall, Chapter 16.
Witting-Berman, U., & Beutel, N. J. (2009). International assignments and the career
management of repatriates: The boundaryless career concepts. International journal of
Management, 26, 77-88.
Zhang, M.M., & Fan, D. (2014). Expatriate skills training strategies of Chinese multinationals
operating in Australia. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 52 (1), 60-76.
About the Authors:
Semere Haile is Interim Head Department of Management and Marketing in the College of Business and Ben
Johnson Endowed Professor in Business in the College of Business at Grambling State University. Dr. Haile’s
research covers a range of international topics. He has published in many journals including European Journal of
Management, Journal of Education Research, International Journal of Business and Public Administration,
International Journal of Business Research.
Donald White is an Assistant Professor of Management in the College of Business at Grambling State University.
Dr. White holds an MBA and Doctorate of Business Administration (DBA) from Louisiana Tech University. He is
the current Dean of the College of Business at Grambling State University and his research interests are primarily
Human Resources Management.
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40 International Journal of Business and Public Administration, Volume 16, Number 1, Spring 2019
Appendix I
Conceptual Framework Showing Factors That Could Turn Expatriate Failure to Success
Expatriate Success
Expatriate
Training and
development
Needs
Selecting and
preparing
Expatriate
Cultural Adjustment
for Expatriation
Appendix I
Conceptual Framework Showing Factors That Could Turn Expatriate Failure to Success
Expatriate Success
Expatriate
Training and
development
Needs
Selecting and
preparing
Expatriate
Cultural Adjustment
for Expatriation
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copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email
articles for individual use.
International Academy of Business & Public Administration Disciplines (IABPAD), LLC and
its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the
copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email
articles for individual use.
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