Global Environmental Governance: Literature Review

This assignment tasks students with conducting a comprehensive review of academic literature focusing on the multifaceted topic of global environmental governance. The review should delve into crucial concepts such as international agreements, institutions, non-state actors, and policy instruments. Students are expected to critically analyze the existing scholarship, identify key challenges and debates within the field, and shed light on the diverse actors shaping global environmental policy.

Global Environmental
Politics

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................................1
Background of Niger delta ........................................................................................................1
Production of oil in region and degradation of environment due to it.......................................2
Environmental degradation of Niger delta..................................................................................2
Political impact due to environmental degradation ....................................................................5
Social movements response in Nigeria and media effects .........................................................7
CONCLUSION................................................................................................................................8
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................10

INTRODUCTION
Niger delta is one of most oil rich region all over the world. The area is highly populated
and have high density. It has faced various issue in past year like oil spillage and environmental
degradation due to it. Economy of Nigeria is highly dependent on oil industry. 90 % of total
earning of the country comes from this sector. Onshore oil production in Nigeria is done most of
the places of the Niger delta. The Niger geographical area is surrounded by various other basins
in the region. Basement rock is the oldest one in the basin. Niger delta is word's second largest
delta. These regions are consider as world most populated region in the world. Unrest conditions
in the region has led to various kind of environmental losses.
Environmental degradation in the region is the major issue which is cause by oil
pollution, noise pollution, water pollution and air pollution. Major resource of deterioration of
environment in the region is contamination of air due to smoke generated by oil and fuel
industries. Present report describes about political impact of degradation of environment in Niger
delta region. Further more, responses of government on environment degradation has been
explained. Social movements and their response in Nigeria have been illustrated in the report.
Impact of social media on protest in Nigeria are explained.Background of Niger delta
Niger delta is situated at Niger river of Nigeria. Niger delta is located on the Gulf of
Guinea which is in the Atlantic Ocean (Hamilton, Gemenne and Bonneuil, eds., 2015)he ocean is
lying in the altitude of 4 degree and 15 minute. It is highly populated region. Sometimes it is also
called the oil river as it is one of the crucial producer of palm oil. Delta region is rich in terms of
petroleum and oil. Niger delta is considered to be situated in the coastal region of the south
political zone. The only region which do not produce oil is the cross river (Scott, Hitchner and
Maclin, 2014).
Coastal area of the region is having fresh water wetlands, mangrove wetlands, sand area,
beaches etc. Surface are is around 47000 sq/km. Land mass of the region is approx 920000
sq/km. Rainfall in the region is average and rage of it is 1500-5000 m. The delta is point for
internation disputation in terms of pollution and environmental degradation. Corruption is also
increasing due to various political issue raised in the area for oil release. This coastal region is
also known as wetland region of the country. The Niger basin is surrounded by various other
basins in the region. Basement rock is the oldest one in the basin. Niger delta is word's second
largest delta. These regions are consider as world most populated region in the world. This
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region has four classifications which are ecological, coastal, fresh water and low land zone.
Niger delta has faced a severe issue of oil spillage which has caused many problems to the
environment. The delta has various states which are Akwa, Edo ,Cross River etc. Approximately
30 % of people of Nigeria lives in Niger delta area. Density of the region is growing
continuously. The population is increasing rapidly and which is almost 20 % of the Nigerian
population.
Production of oil in region and degradation of environment due to it
Nigeria is producing oil since 1971.The country is one of the largest oil producer in the
world. The Niger delta region is exporting oil exporting petroleum area. The region is also one
of the largest source of gas (Witter and et.al., 2015). The country is having second largest oil
source in African region. Statistics of 1990 state that foreign exchange of the country is 89%
which is dependent on 82% of oil export. The region is also having many reserves which are
increase beyond 25-35 years. The major oil producing company in the region is Shell D' Arcy.
The company has started its production in 1958. In that time period the production rate per day
was approximately 5000 barrels. NNPCs statistics shows that drop in rate of production was 1.7
barrels per day. This drop in rate was cause of various activities of other countries ion oil
production. Four main oil refineries in Nigeria are producing 4500000 barrels oil per day. The
oldest oil refinery is the Port Harcourt. The refinery got license in 1965. Firstly the capacity of
the refinery was 32000 barrels per day (Schlosberg, 2013). Port Harcourt refinery is having its
branch in the country which produces 140000 barrels oil per day. According to the researches of
Anifowose the region have approx 700 oil fields. 300 oil fields out of these are situated at
onshore of the area. Where as remaining fields are locate at offshore.
Environmental degradation of Niger delta
Environmental degradation in the region is the major issue which is cause by oil
pollution, noise pollution, water pollution and air pollution. Environment degradation at Niger
delta is the cause of oil spillage. Oil and gas exploration is the major cause of oil spillage in the
region. Niger delta has faced a severe issue of oil spillage which has caused many problems to
the environment. Oil producing companies situated in the region are the major reason behind oil
splitting issue. Oil splitting is is very common trouble in Nigeria. Many oil companies are
situated there in the region. The oil spillage issue was most severe problem that is continuously
degrading the environment (Pattberg and Widerberg, 2015). It is causing negative impact on the
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environment of the country. Form various surveys it was evaluated that oil can be spilled up to
approx quantity of ten to twelve pipe. In the last 12 years Niger delta region has brought in the
problem of environment degradation (Pattberg and Widerberg, 2015). This issue is also
impacting the peace and security of the region. Form 4 decades ecological deterioration and
neglection is increasing due to oil industry. Criminal issues are also raising in the region due to
that reason. Hey issues of environment deterioration are related to petroleum sector in the
country.
The delta is point for internation disputation in terms of pollution and environmental
degradation. Corruption is also increasing due to various political issue raised in the area for oil
spillage (Schlosberg, 2013). The authority for petroleum resources Nigeria has estimated that
approximately 2 million barrel oil was spilled in Niger delta region. This issue has resulted into
various accidents. The oil spillage has also caused various environmental problems soil
degradation and forest degradation. The Shell Acry company was responsible for the oil spillage
in issue (Stevens, 2017). Quantity of oil spilled in environment was 10 times of claimed amount.
Form various surveys it was evaluated that oil can be spilled up to approx quantity of ten to
twelve pipe. In the last 12 years Niger delta region has brought in the problem of environment
degradation. The largest spill at individual place was recorded 400000 barrels. Shell Acry
company' trunk failure caused the spillage and the amount of oil spilled was 59000 barrels.
Spillage of oil has impacted the ecosystem of the region. Environmental degradation is also the
cause of depletion of soil and forest.
Niger delta is one of the most popular regions in Nigeria. It is having diverse culture and
heritage is also famous of the place (Bernauer and Gampfer, 2013). The region is famous
because it is rich in oil production. Development of oil industries has been impacting
environment. It is a complex situation which is categorised in to oil pollution and deterioration of
environment. Negative impacts on environment has been seen due to oil spillage issue in the
region. Before this issue the region was containing high level of biodiversity and abundance of
flora and fauna. There was wide variety of tress and crops but after the incidence of oil spillage
adverse impacts have been seen by the region. Ecosystem of the region has contaminated due to
this issue (Pattberg and Widerberg 2015). In spite of these conditions in region it has been
evaluated that oil production form Niger delta contributes 75 % of annual turnover (Pellow,
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2016.). There are various other aspects also which causes environmental degradation in the
region which are as follows:
Air pollution
Air gets polluted due to contamination of air with gas, oil smoke and various other
particles. It is also considered as waste material which comes form production of goods. This
heat reduce the quality of air (Witter and et.al., 2015). According to the report published by
world bank air gets pollute due to gas, fumes, smoke and various kind of odours. These makes
the air harmful and cause problems to people in breathing. Environmental degradation also arises
from domestic activities and agriculture works in which various kind of pesticides are used.
These pesticides harms soil as well as air. In the region of Niger delta oil production companies
also causes harms to air
Water pollution
Major source of water contamination in Nigeria are mining activities conducted in oil
production process. Soil erosion and household waste also contributes in water deterioration.
According to (Brown, 2014) the major cause of environmental degradation is flooding. Lagos
flooding cause overflowing at river banks. Also the occurrence of flood is season but it cause
major harms to environment during that period. Soil of the Niger delta is more sensitive to
flooding .
Noise pollution
This kind of pollution is generally caused due to unwanted sound in surroundings. Major
source of noise in the Niger delta region is the oil industry. High density area and industries of
oil are the sources of pollution in the region (DeSombre, 2017). Deterioration of environment is
impacts health of Nigerian people. It also causes deforestation problem.
Pollution due to oil
Oil pollution is the main source of environmental degradation in the Niger delta. The
region is have several areas which are producing oil. Surroundings of the region gets affected
due to various oil spillage incidents happens there (Jörgens,2013). Most of firm sin Nigeria are
engaged in production of oil and gas. Though this manufacturing help in increasing the economy
of the country yet it causes harms to ecosystem of the area. Drinking water also gets polluted due
to mixing of oil in water resources of the region. Negative impacts on environment has been seen
due to oil spillage issue in the region. Soil cultivation also happen due to split of oil. In all over
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world most gas flaring issue occurs in Nigeria. This smoke cause severe issues to health of
people. Premature deaths and asthma problem are major issues.
Political impact due to environmental degradation
Government has not taken significant steps in the issue and due to that critical impact has
been observed by the local community people. Mis -management has been created by state in
resolving the issue in effective manner and thus negative impact has been suffered through this.
There are various issues that are faced by local people due to the oil spillage in Niger Delta.
Failure of government in resolving the issue has also created negative influence and situations
have become worse due to this. Poor operating practices that were used by the firm have been a
major cause for oil spillage issues in the Delta (Jörgens, 2013). It is critical that government of
state should make strict policies so that all the organisation working in the region should carry
out their functional activities in legal and lawful manner. Environmental degradation in the
Nigeria has altered the law of politics in the region.
Oil exploration has also given negative impacts on the external environment and
traditional living of individuals in that area is significantly affected. Operational security
measures have not been taken by the organisations working there and it has created disastrous
situations in that region (Green, 2013). Federal government of nation has also not taken any steps
for reducing the harmful impacts that are created by this. It has also given impact on the
economic diversification and other domestic energy activities in that region. Poor governance is
determined as major problem that is faced in that region and due to that also community people
living in that region are suffering (Bulkeley Edwards and Fuller,2014). Government
representation rely on the regulations and norms and thus it lacks clear structure due to which
issues are faced. Oil generated pollution that comprise environmental and water pollution is at an
alarming stage and in this regard state has not made any strict norms. In addition to that lack of
effective constraints also creates threats to the environment in that delta.
Oil is the major source of concern in the Nigerian region. Oil is the major source in
increasing economy of region. Political power on oil factories has been increasing due to this.
Corruption in politics has been increasing after the issue of oil spillage and environmental
degradation. Increasing revenue due to oil companies in Nigeria region has raising the corruption
in local government authorities (Green,2013). These revenues are challenging the political
systems of the country. This corruption in politics has increased due to environmental
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degradation. The impact f environmental degradation has been seen on economy and political
condition of the country. Environmental degradation directly affects politics by raising the
problem of taxation and poor economy development . Increase in corruption in politics increases
the poverty in Nigeria. Most of the people live in Niger Delta region are getting affected by the
poverty rising due to corruption.
There are several issues that are faced by local people due to poor environment
conditions. Government failure is is also negatively impacting the politics of the country. It is
required that government of the country should make some strict policies so that environment
degradation can be reduced to some extent (Bulkeley, Edwards and Fuller, 2014). Oil
exploration has also given negative impacts on the external environment and traditional living of
individuals in that area is significantly affected. It is required that some operational security
measures should be taken by the government to make environment of the region better. Federal
government of the country is also need to take some actions in order to remove the negative
impact on environment due to oil production companies. It has also given impact on the
economic diversification and other domestic energy activities in that region.
Economic diversification has also got impacted by the worsening of surroundings. Poor
government is identified as the major reason behind this issue (Global environment change .
2017.). Oil generated pollution that comprise environmental and water pollution is at an alarming
stage and in this regard state has not made any strict norms. In addition to that lack of effective
constraints also creates threats to the environment in that delta. New regulatory bodies are
require to be made for ensuring the security of environment (Scott, Hitchner and Maclin, 2014.).
Government should make some strict policies and rules to ensure the safety of environment form
oil production companies. There is need to make some rule for oil industry to ensure that there
production activities will not contribute in degradation of environment. Pollution legislation are
need to be made in the region which can protect the environment form harms. Some pressure
groups are need to be made in the Niger delta region who can fight against the degradation of
environment. Government can also make pollution controls which can help in overcoming the
impact of oil pollution in environment.
Social movements response in Nigeria and media effects
Social movements in Nigeria have increased after the issue of oil spillage in Nigeria.
Nigerian social movement which is also called national democratic coalition was started in 1994.
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This movement got success in achieving peace (Schlosberg, 2013). It has helped in forming
democratic government in the country. Reason behind success was that it has done without
jeopardizing the peace in region. Occupy Nigeria social movement was a protest against
environmental degradation. This protest was done to reduce the price of gas an oil product in the
region. The protest was successful in accomplishing peace in the region. The major role in this
protest was of social media. Various social media platforms like Twitter and Facebook has
played significant role in organizing this protest against environmental degradation.
Occupy Nigeria protest
This protest movement was initiate on January 2012. It was for removing the subsidies
that are applied on gasoline and fuels. Nigeria is counted among worlds largest exporter of
petroleum. This export contribute to the 80 percent revenue of the government (Stevens, 2017).
Main cause of increasing subsidy was corruption and accountability issue. Occupy Nigeria
protest was done with the support of most Nigerians. Perceiving subsidy was the tangible benefit
which was generating from the oil and gas production in the country. Hike in price of petroleum
products was related with increase in cost of living. This additional cost in goods production was
borne by customer in the form of inflation rise. There was no major demonstrations in the region
which has supported in protest and getting approval form most of the citizens. In some parts of
the region protesters had taken the slogan of “Occupy Nigeria” in order to line up with global
occupy movement. By getting encouraged form occupy movement various kind of inequality
was arise in the region.
Media and activist in Nigerian diaspora
Various social media platforms like Twitter and Facebook has played significant role in
organizing this protest against hike of petroleum and gasoline products. Media and social media
has played an important role in success of protest. Facebook was found the most visited social
media platform by Nigerian people. Rapidly increasing mobile telephony was the major tool to
spared the protest among people. Use of social media in engaging political people was very
important. Social media has also helped in removal of subsidies protest. Basically, it was a tool
for coordination of protest. In the initial phase only African TV channel has supported in
broadcasting of the coverage of protest. These channel were limited and and were not able to
deliver the whole news about protest.
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Social media has solved this issue by providing platforms for broadcasting the news
related to protest. According to (DeSombre, 2017) traditional media was very much vulnerable
to politics and amendments has decreased the Nigerian platforms. Rallying points of Nigeria
were Twitter and Facebook and in diaspora to give exposure to occupy Nigeria protest. Various
blogs and websites had provided the live coverage of the protest by posting news and pictures
on the internet (Brown, 2014).
Rapidly increasing mobile telephony was the major tool to spread the protest among
people. Use of social media in engaging political people was very important. Many negative
posts on Facebook has led the president of the country to shut down his own Facebook page.
Social media was core for connecting all the protesters. Activist of occupy Nigeria protest were
connected through internet against fuel subsidy protest. By getting peripheral by mainstream
media various bureaucrats and activist got involved in protest using social media. Most of the
people participated in protest by using Facebook, twitter and You Tube.
Various Facebook pages have been made like” removal of subsidiary is necessary”,
occupy Nigeria etc. These were created during initial stages of protest. Subscribers of these
pages in the first week itself was more than 15 thousand. Many videos of protest has made their
ways by making use of the YouTube. Some professional of protest has spread out the news by
using mobile telephony. According to (Stevens, 2017) social activist and Nigerians have posted
on Facebook and twitter to circulated the information among protesters. Subsidiary removal has
also been posted on Facebook. Social media has given a platform to protesters to get each and
every update to protesters.
CONCLUSION
Summing up the above report it can be concluded that Niger delta region in Nigeria has
been facing issue of environmental graduation. Degradation of surroundings is the cause of air
pollution, oil pollution, soil pollution and water pollution. Forest and soil is getting depleted due
to several oil spillage incidents happened in the past. It is there for the major issue of concern
and requires urgent solutions. Ecosystem of the region is also getting affected due to it.
Economic diversification has also got impacted by the deterioration of surroundings. Poor
government is identified as the major reason behind this issue.
Occupy Nigeria protest has brought in some changes in the region. Government should
make some strict policies and rules to ensure the safety of environment form oil production
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companies. Some pressure groups are need to be made in the Niger delta region who can fight
against the degradation of environment Social media has played a vital role in success of occupy
Nigeria protest. Local communities of the region has given lot of support to protesters.
Continuously increasing mobile telephony was the major tool to spread the protest among
people. It is recommended that some strict rules and policies should be made by government in
order to ensure the safety of environment. Corruption should be removed from the oil sector so
that significant actions could be taken.
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REFERENCES
Books and journals
Hamilton, C., Gemenne, F. and Bonneuil, C. eds., 2015. The Anthropocene and the global
environmental crisis: rethinking modernity in a new epoch. Routledge.
Scott, D., Hitchner, S. and Maclin, E. M., 2014. Fuel for the Fire: Biofuels and the Problem of
Translation at the Tenth Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological
Diversity. Global Environmental Politics. 14(3). pp.84-101.
Witter, R. and et.al., 2015. Moments of influence in global environmental governance.
Environmental Politics. 24(6). pp.894-912.
Schlosberg, D., 2013. Theorising environmental justice: the expanding sphere of a discourse.
Environmental Politics. 22(1). pp.37-55.
Pattberg, P. and Widerberg, O., 2015. Theorising global environmental governance: Key
findings and future questions. Millennium. 43(2). pp.684-705.
Stevens, C., 2017. Post-Treaty Politics: Secretariat Influence in Global Environmental
Governance, by Jinnah Sikina The MIT Press, 2014, 272 pp,£ 40.95 hb, ISBN
9780262028042. Transnational Environmental Law. 6(1). pp.187-190.
Bernauer, T. and Gampfer, R., 2013. Effects of civil society involvement on popular legitimacy
of global environmental governance. Global Environmental Change. 23(2). pp.439-449.
Pellow, D. N., 2016. An Unfinished Foundation: The United Nations and Global Environmental
Governance. Perspectives on Politics. 14(4).
Brown, K., 2014. Global environmental change I: A social turn for resilience?. Progress in
Human Geography. 38(1). pp.107-117.
DeSombre, E. R., 2017. Global environmental institutions. Taylor & Francis.
Jörgens, H., 2013. Capacity building in national environmental policy: A comparative study of
17 countries. Springer Science & Business Media.
Green, J. F., 2013. Rethinking private authority: Agents and entrepreneurs in global
environmental governance. Princeton University Press.
Bulkeley, H., Edwards, G. A. and Fuller, S., 2014. Contesting climate justice in the city:
Examining politics and practice in urban climate change experiments. Global
Environmental Change. 25. pp.31-40.
ONLINE
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Global environment change . 2017. [Online]. Available through:
<https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/migration-and-global-environmental-
change>. [Accessed on 29th June , 2017].
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