Global Perspectives of Childhood and Youth

This paper examines the theories on development of children and parenting and presents an overview of the consequences of economic and cultural gap on parenting and its impact on the children.

Global Perspectives of Childhood and Youth 1
Global Perspectives of Childhood and Youth
According to Graham Allen, British Member of Parliament, the repercussions of poor
parenting are all around – parents and youngsters respectively can turn unrealized human
potential into massive waste by not valuing education as a route out of poverty and indulging in
anti-social behavior. Anthropologists, irrespective of their developmental assumptions, wanted to
describe child rearing and their activities all over the world. During the course of ethnography
many theorists’ views came under attack. Piaget’s universal account of childhood cognitive
development was under empirically attacked. Parents can influence and inspire their children
from a very young age (Levine, 2007). Child development is a special avenue of interest in the
field of psychology. The theories of child development focus on the different stages of
development that a child goes through. These include from conception to infancy, childhood and
adolescence. Such theories are mental frameworks used to collect information and make
predictions about what may happen as a result of an outcome based on connected concepts
(Eccles & Templeton , 2002). Useful child development theories bring together systemic
research evidence and suggest reasons behind the outcomes and establish the connection between
the events (Berk & Garvin, 1984; Berk, 1986). This paper examines the theories on development
of children and parenting and presents an overview of the consequences of economic and cultural
gap on parenting and its impact on the children.
Theories
Over the years, researchers have come out with a number of social theories seeking to
explain why people behave the way they do. In his Social Learning Theory (1977), Albert
Bandura bridges the space between behaviorism and cognition. Bandura’s perspective integrates

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the thought of behavioral strengthening and cognitive process from both of them. In his effort to
give details of the way children gain knowledge in a social environment by observing and
following others, Bandura performed a series of experiments involving children and Bobo Dolls.
First, the children were categories into two parts. The initial group was made to watch adults
behaving aggressively towards the doll. While in the case of the second group adults behaved
gently with the doll. Bandura observed that when let lose the kids of the first collection acted
insistently intimating the adults, while offsprings of the second group acted gently. Based on
these observations Bandura formed his four principles of social learning - attention, retention,
reproduction and motivation ( Wheeler, 2018). According to Bandura, human beings are exposed
to a number of behaviors on a daily basis. However, the majority of them hardly pose any
significance. Therefore, attention plays a significant role in understanding whether behavior can
influence a person to imitate it. Also, behavior can be imitated immediately, but in order to
imitate it multiple times, memory retention is needed. As per Bandura, the ability to reproduce a
behavior also depends on the physical and mental ability of the person. Motivation is another
factor, as the perks and rewards of behavior can motivate the person to reproduce the behavior
(McLeod, Simply Psychology, 2018). Bandura’s Social Learning Theory provides a wonderful
insight into the mysterious human mind and the way individuals behave. It can be used as a
powerful method to educate children. If children see any positive consequence as a result of any
particular behavior, then they are most likely to repeat it. However, if they face any negative
consequence, chances are that they would avoid such behavior in future ( Wheeler, 2018).
Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, the Russian psychologist known for his socio-cultural
Theory of Cognitive Development, elaborated on the principle psychological between the
everyday concepts and the academic concepts (learned in school) of students. The academic

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concepts are referred as scientific not because they are based on logical facts but they are learned
through a systemic process. As per Vygotsky (1978, 1987), these two concepts are different.
While the everyday concepts develop through the day to day experiences of the child, the
academic concepts develop through a systemic learning process. These two unite into a single
concept during the psychological development of the child. The development of academic
concepts influences everyday concepts and trigger a change (Haenen, Schrijnemakers, & Stuf,
2003). This interpretation of Vygotsky’s challenged Jean Piaget’s view which was widely
accepted. According to Piaget, there exists an opposite relationship between teaching-learning
and development (Stetsenko & Arievitch, 2002). As per Vygotsky the processes teaching and
learning are intertwined. When a child interacts with adults, peers and others, the functions
transform themselves as the out world, before being absorbed inward. It is through others that we
turn into ourselves (Haenen, Schrijnemakers, & Stuf, 2003). This compliments the research of
Kimburley Choi, which shows due to different parenting practices middle-class kids enjoy an
unfair advantage over the kids of working-class parents in terms of language, creative training,
computer application and practical problem solving (Choi, 2015). For instance playing with
building blocks helps the children become creative.
According to famous Austrian neuroscientist Sigmund Freud, the personality of a human
being develops in multiple stages and the childhood events can have a great influence on the
adult life of the person. Freud developed a topographical structure of the mind where he
categorized it into three entities, id, ego and superego. These are hypothetical perception rather
than physical areas (Woodworth, 1917). The id compromises of two types of impulses- Eros and
Thanatos. While Eros is the survival instinct, Thanatos is instinct to die. According to Freud,
superego develops during the early infant stage. Freud divides the human psychological stage

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into several stages like oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital. In any case, if one the stage remains
incomplete mental abnormality takes place (McLeod, Simply Psychology, 2018). The influences
of Freud’s work are visible among the works of several anthropologists who conducted
ethnographic fieldwork based on his stages of psychological development.
Advantages and Disadvantages
The social learning theories have their own share of advantages and disadvantages. It is
difficult for a single theory to explain a system as complex as the human mind. For example,
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory was able to prove that children do copy aggression. It was a
break from the traditional belief that watching violence prevents a person from being violent in
real life. Another aspect of Bandura’s theory was that children acquire skills that they see on
platforms like television. This supports the research of Kimburley Choi, where she proposes that
access to capital and cultural resources can strengthen the child’s overall skills as they learn what
they see. However, Bandura’s theory fails to explain the fact that why despite being exposed to
violence many children never imitate these acts.
Vygotsky’s theory of social constructivism acknowledges the difference between
individuals from the same cultures and individuals from different cultures. However, according
to him, a child cannot do anything beyond its development stage. Moreover, his works haven’t
faced the same level of scrutiny as some of the other psychologists like Paiget. Perhaps the time
taken to translate his works from Russian to English is responsible for this. The main criticism of
Vygotsky’s works comes from Rogoff (1990). He criticizes Vygotsky’s ideas as culturally non-
universal and largely reliant on verbal interaction.

Global Perspectives of Childhood and Youth 5
Freud’s Theory of Development, on the other hand, adopted a new revolutionary
approach in defining the human mind and the way it operates. His theory was supported by in-
depth case studies backed by data and in-depth information. However, Freud’s research lacks an
appropriate scientific approach the data is subjected to individuals and cannot be generalized. His
concepts like the unconscious mind are not measurable and therefore cannot be tested.
Approach to Play
Playing is essential to child’s development as it enhances cognitive, physical, social and
emotional aspects of children and youth. This offers a tempting opportunity for the parents to get
involved with their children and build a bond. The time and access to free play have drastically
reduced due to several lifestyle factors and other issues like alterations in family structure
(Behrend, Rosengren, & Perlmutter, 1992). Attention has shifted more towards core academics
instead of the playing aspect. United Nations High Commission for Human Rights supports
playing as a cause behind optimal child development. This seems to be a birthright (Office of the
United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, 1989). This is often challenged by
negative forces like child labor, exploitation practices, war and violence. Also limited resources
available to children of poor parents play significant role in curbing free play. Even children with
access to proper resources might not be getting the benefits of playing due to extreme pressured
lifestyle. Playing allows children to apply and develop their creativity and also grow their
imagination, skills along with physical, cognitive and emotional strength. It brings about healthy
development of the brain. Playing helps the children learn faster to interact with the world
around them. The article by Choi shows there is an association between educational attainment,
employment and income inequality. The nature of employment of their parents and income level
often decides their access to proper resources which allow them to play and develop their social

Global Perspectives of Childhood and Youth 6
and cognitive skills. The study however did not find too much difference in access to toys with
respect to social class differences. Rather Charles who belonged to more educated parents had
greater access to toys than Enya. It is also about the nature of toys and parental guidance. In case
of Charles his parents constantly ensure he does not spend much time on the iPhone. His mother
spends at least 45 minutes every day towards family play. So this instance also highlights that a
pressured lifestyle of the family cannot generate the best outcome from the children. Charles’
case was a rare one where his mother supported imaginative plays involving monsters and fairy
tale characters which are usually uncommon in developing nation’s culture. Such playing
involves role-plying, storytelling which develops verbal agility. They develop new competencies
as they grow up in an environment of proper playing. This increases their resilience and
confidence. Practicing roles of adults help them conquer their fears. This happens specifically
when they are guided by an adult during the process of playing. But the adult should not guide
them completely, otherwise the children might lose the intended benefits from playing.
Unstructured play should be encouraged such that their physical activities are increased and
provides a simple joy to their childhood. However when parents simply join them in the play,
they can build a suitable, loving and consistent bond with them and can see the world from their
viewpoint (Stetsenko & Arievitch, 2002). When parents can have a look at the world of the child,
they can communicate more effectively with them during their process of nurture. Playing offers
the less verbal children to express their mind and experiences as well as negative feelings which
in turn engage the parents (Diaz & Berk, 1992).
Through playing children develop social skills while they interact with their peers.
Imagination and creativity can be well enhanced and expressed. In a survey of anthropological
studies, Gray (2009, 2011) explained that uninterrupted playful activities of children in such

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cultural groups existing many thousands of years back. So if one would observe the process of
evolution, playing always played significant role in the same. Amongst children in the USA child
psychopathology has been on the rise as eventually opportunities for playing have come down.
Physical play has found the earliest evidence in evolution. This kind of play can be found in
mammals and also some reptiles and amphibians. Physical playing in human children includes
activities like jumping, climbing, skipping, bike riding and playing with ball. They also practice
‘rough and tumble’ play which involved fighting with peers, brother and sisters or caregivers.
Language based play is a popular children’s doings where children shows various behaviors like
telling jokes, and utter repetitive sounds like chants, rhymes and nonsense verse (Rogoff, 1990;
Fernyhough & Fradley, 2005). Inspite of the prevalence of musical play in young children, other
kinds of symbolic or semiotic play have not been well researched. Children can sing, dance and
express their joy while making various sounds with various objects. In fact early communicative
efforts in children develop as response to rhythm and sounds. Playing with drawing and writing
is also quite evident in mark making of young children in their early years.
Playing is an integral part of academic environment where the school setting helps
develop the social and emotional aspects of the child. Children adjust better to school setting
when they have access to proper playtime and resources. It helps in enhancing children’s
readiness to learn and their skills towards problem solving. Social and emotional learning can
complement academic learning and improve their abilities to learn. Certain amount of
unscheduled time should be allotted to children as part of their peer interactions. This also
follows from the social learning theory of Bandura discussed earlier. Choi’s study shows that
children reflect the way their parents interact with them. Enya had as many toys as Charles, but
her parents believed in convenience parenting without paying much attention to the details of her

Global Perspectives of Childhood and Youth 8
activities and behavior. They often shouted to their child asking her to stop playing with the
phone without getting into any explanation. This developed certain curtness in her replies as
well. Similarly in school setting a formally designed lesson in physical education might not
provide the same benefits as a leisure time based on free-play. Regulations imposed by parents
(Freund, 1990). When they get lesser time for physical activities, their academic abilities also
come down. As Charles is grown more in an environment of free play with imagination, he is
better able to express his feelings and thoughts than Enya. So apart from the number of toys it is
important what the nature of toys and process of play is about.
Moreover a sedentary style of learning in schools makes it even more difficult for boys to
work successfully. They hardly get time for free exploratory play activities. Recent marketing
strategies lead parents to provide organized activities for their children apart from schooling.
They are provided with enrichment tools like videos and computer programs along with
specialized books and toys which ensure they are adequately stimulated to attain success in
academics. Certain specialized gyms and enrichment programs are also designed such that
children get adequate access to enrichment activities outside school hours. In fact parents spend
more time transporting their children to these activity centers apart from investing financial
resources as well. However although these children, subjected to tough schedules are thriving
well, they are at times reacting to different pressures of anxiety and signs of stress. This is
because these children move so much according to schedule that there is little or no time for free
creative play (Schaffer, 1996). When parents focus more on interaction and at-home activities
they are also less stressed than when they have to arrange for other organized activities for the
children. These organized activities have good developmental prospects (Berk & Landau, 1993).
John Dewey, a constructivist, does not believe in repetitive and rote memorization practiced by

Global Perspectives of Childhood and Youth 9
schools. He suggested directed living based on interpretive approach where knowledge is
gathered via involvement with the content instead of imitation or repetition (Frauenglass & Diaz,
1985; Ostad & Sorensen, 2007). John Dewey suggest use of real-world, practical workshops
where students can get opportunities to think for themselves and voice their opinions. Education,
according to Dewey is based on real experience. Piaget also did not believe that learning was a
passive gathering of knowledge (Piaget, 1959). He rather suggested that learning is a rapid
process of several stages of adaptation to practice. Young learners build knowledge by
developing and examining their theories of the world (UCD Dublin, n.d.). However there is often
a common notion that instructors need not tell students directly what to do, but that is not true.
Students can even construct their own knowledge while listening to the instructions and lectures.
Bruner is another constructivist who believes that learners will build knowledge on basis of
current experiences. So instruction should ideally be based on experiences and the foundation
which enables a student to be willing to learn.
Conclusions
Children’s readiness can be more observed when learning can be achieved through play
and games. Instructions can be formed such that students can grasp them conveniently. This is
possible when students can use their familiar tools to learn. The article by Choi showed how
Charles learnt to express himself better by role playing and use of imaginative playing tools. This
also is in line with Vygotsky who showed than children would learn more by doing rather than
seeing or observation (Vygotsky, 1962). Children literally play for keeps. Whatever they learn
while playing, stay with them throughout their lives. However caregivers also play important
role in guiding the children through their play. Playing means work for the children. A lot of
energy is devoted towards it. For instance when a child struggles to put a ring over a color cone

Global Perspectives of Childhood and Youth 10
he is using all his cognitive power and physical efforts to achieve the goal. In modern days
pediatricians can play a significant role in advising the parents about providing active playing
environment to the children. It even helps children develop skills which they need in future.
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