Anatomy and Physiology: Body Systems, Metabolism, and Homeostasis

This comprehensive report delves into the intricate workings of human anatomy and physiology. It begins by outlining the major anatomical features of various body systems, including the nervous, cardiovascular, and digestive systems, highlighting their key functions and interconnectedness. The report then explores cellular metabolism, detailing the processes of catabolism and anabolism, the role of growth hormone in metabolism, and the conversion of food into energy (ATP). The report further examines the body's response to everyday activities, such as eating, and analyzes the cellular and tissue structures within the digestive system, explaining how the body coordinates internal activities through homeostasis and feedback loops. Additionally, the report discusses methods for recording routine measures, their ethical considerations, and their use in diagnosis and care planning. Finally, it addresses how age and disease can affect body structure and function, and how these conditions impact routine patient care. The report provides a thorough overview of human biology, making it a valuable resource for students studying anatomy and physiology.

Contents
Introduction...........................................................................................................................................1
Task 1.....................................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Main anatomical features in body...............................................................................................1
1.2 Cellular metabolism and role of growth hormone in metabolism...............................................4
Task 2.....................................................................................................................................................5
2.1 Normal body response to everyday activity that is eating...........................................................5
2.2 Cellular and tissue structure in discussed system physiology......................................................7
2.3 How body coordinates internal activities as homeostasis and feedback loops...........................8
Task 3.....................................................................................................................................................9
3.1 Methods to record routine measures its ethical considerations and uses for diagnosis.............9
3.2 How are these routine measures useful in providing information?...........................................10
3.3 How such information can help in care planning.......................................................................11
Task 4...................................................................................................................................................12
4.1 How age may affect the body structure and functioning...........................................................12
4.2 Impact of mentioned condition on body structure and function...............................................13
4.3 Effects of condition on routine care given to the patient..........................................................13
Conclusion...........................................................................................................................................16
References...........................................................................................................................................18
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Introduction
The human body is made up of various organs and organ systems that work together and
individually to bring the proper functioning of the body. These systems are complex series of
organs that work with collaboration to one another following the concepts of physiology
that help in forming better body functioning and promoting health and well-being. This
assignment discusses various systems of the body to support human physiology; it also
includes linked functioning of human anatomy with physiology and the effects of age and
disease on the human body.
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Task 1
1.1 Main anatomical features in the body
The body consists of various organ systems including the cardiovascular system, digestive,
nervous, urinary, skeleton, endocrine, respiratory etc. these systems contain various organs
that are essential in the context of human anatomy and physiology and are required to run
common and normal body functioning.
Nervous system-
The nervous system is considered as the chief and controlling centre of the body that
coordinates various functions and even other systems. It is responsible for both voluntary
and involuntary functioning of the human body. The system contains brain, spinal cord and
nerves. The widespread network of nerves throughout the body forms the peripheral
nervous system and brain and spinal cord forms the central nervous system (Sherwood,
2015). The three main function of the central nervous system includes encoding the sensory
input, integrating the messages and motor responses to provide the functioning to a
particular part of the body. The nervous system is responsible for complete coordination of
body, the brain is the essential part that is characterized to have various complex functions
that help in thinking, decision making and learning.
(Online source- http://www.recoveryaftertraining.net/the-nervous-system/ ).
Cardiovascular system-
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The cardiovascular system is also known as a human circulatory system that is responsible
for pumping and providing oxygenated blood to the whole body. The system consists of
heart and blood vessels mainly arteries, veins and capillaries. These blood vessels are
responsible for transferring blood from heart to various body parts and vice versa. The heart
is an essential organ of the human body that helps in pumping blood to all the body parts.
Blood flows through four heart chambers and is pumped to various body organs through
arteries (Fox, 2006). Veins are responsible for bringing blood back to heart and capillaries
are the small thin vessels that carry blood to the periphery and where the oxygen and gas
exchange occurs. It also carries nutrients, cell waste and hormones to different parts of the
body.
(Online source- https://www.dreamstime.com/stock-illustration-kids-body-circulatory-
system-human-anatomy-image90997102 ).
Digestive system-
Human beings eat food and this food is absorbed by the body through a set of process that
is called digestion. The absorbed food is utilized to get energy for the body and nutrients for
the organs and cells. The food ingested goes through six processes these include ingestion,
propulsion, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion, absorption and defecation. These six
steps explain the complete function of digestive system. The human digestive system
consists of a chain of organs including mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, liver, small
intestine, large intestine and colon (Stanfield, 2012). The digestive system helps in breaking
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down the complex food into a simpler form to be absorbed by the body and used by the
cells. The whole process functions in collaboration with other organ systems and helps in
normal health. Some accessory organs also are part of this system including salivary glands,
pancreas and gallbladder; these organs help in digestion of food but have an association
with other systems too (Rizzo, 2015).
(Online source- https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/digestive-
system-how-it-works ).
1.2 Cellular metabolism and role of growth hormone in metabolism
Cellular metabolism is defined as the chemical activities going on in cells to maintain life. It
is the process of extracting the energy from organic substances or food we eat. The cellular
metabolism includes absorption, breakdown and excretion of carbohydrates, proteins, fats,
minerals, lipids and enzymes in the body.it has two pathways either catabolic or anabolic
the chief aim of both is to convert food into ATP (Herman, 2016). Cell metabolism initiates
with the process of catabolism that includes breaking down of the substances using
enzymatic action. Larger molecules are broken down into a smaller form and so on to be
utilized by the cells. Carbohydrates are broken down by enzymes into monosaccharide and
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disaccharides by process of hydrolysis that is splitting by water. When the breakdown of
components take place the energy is released cells get their energy from the chemical
energy that is generated by catabolism or breaking down of bonds (Shier, Butler & Lewis,
2017). All the molecules are at the end converted to glucose that is the simplest unit
absorbed by the body to make ATP that is the unit of energy stored in the body. Glycolysis
occurs and glucose is converted to ATP, this process can occur in both ways either
aerobically and non-aerobically the end product of both the methods will be the production
of ATP. Even other molecules such as lipids, protein etc. are converted to glucose and ATP
via different methods such as Krebs cycle, glycolysis, citric acid cycle or electron control
chain. Cell respiration takes place to convert the molecules to form ATP that will be required
as the energy unit for cells in the body (VanPutte, Regan & Russo, 2017).
Growth hormone is the hormone secreted by the pituitary gland that has the main function
to promote growth and development of the body tissues and organs. Somatotropin is
another name for growth hormone and it has various functions such as the development of
chondrocytes and cartilages, increases calcium retention, promotes lipolysis and protein
synthesis, enhances the growth of all internal organs excluding brain, helps in maintaining
homeostasis, helps in gluconeogenesis in the liver, stimulates the immune system. Growth
hormone is essential in cellular metabolism and helps in growth as seen that it helps in
gluconeogenesis in the liver that is a process of formation of new glucose molecules to be
utilized in forming ATP that is the chief aim of cell respiration and source of energy for the
body. The imbalances of growth hormone in the body can lead to a disorder like the
increase production of the hormone can cause acromegaly or gigantism and decreased
production leads to hypoglycemia as it will hamper the gluconeogenesis in liver and weak
physic with mental retardation as its complications (Devesa, Almengló & Devesa, 2016).
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(Online source- http://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/19/1/290 ).
Task 2
2.1 Normal body response to everyday activity that is eating
The process of eating is done by every individual every day and is a basic necessity of life.
The eating process is the procedure of digestion and ingestion of food to be used to produce
energy for cells. As the food is taken in the mouth the two process takes place here that
helps in the formation of the bolus that can be swallowed and reach the stomach. The food
is being chewed by the teeth in the mouth that is mechanical grinding and breakdown of
food simultaneously saliva is secreted from salivary glands that help in the formation of
bolus softening the food molecules. Saliva also contains enzyme ptyalin that helps in the
breakdown of food molecules. The bolus of food is now swallowed into oesophagus here
the walls of oesophagus shows peristalsis movement and sends the food into the stomach.
Food now reaches stomach where certain enzymes are secreted as amylase pepsin that
helps in digestion of food liver also adds bile and other enzymes for the breakdown of food
into a simpler form (McKinley, O'Loughlin & Bidle, 2015). The food is here mixed and formed
as chyme that is simpler and broken down form. Chyme enters small intestine where the
walls of the small intestine are finger-like projections with villi that help in mixing the food
with enzymes and form chyme that can be absorbed and utilized to generate energy in cells.
Here the food is being broken down more, absorbed and the residue is passed to large
intestine for excretion. The amount of enzymatic secretion from the small intestine is
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determined by the quantity of chyme. The more is the chyme the more is the secretion and
absorption of nutrients from it. The residue or waste products are then passed to large
intestine that is the last part of the digestive tract. Here the residue from the small intestine
is passed through and water molecules and minerals are absorbed in this stage also. The
rest of the residue or waste product are passed down to colon and excreted from the
human body. The food is being absorbed to get nutrients energy and minerals from it so
these products can be used by the organs and cells in the body to gain energy and work
efficiently.
(Online source- http://healthlifemedia.com/healthy/understanding-digestive-system-
physiology/ ).
2.2 Cellular and tissue structure in discussed system physiology
The cellular and tissue component of every system is responsible for the physiological
functioning of the body. In given discussion, the digestive system is being discussed where
the food is eaten and being digested by the organs of the digestive tract to nourish the
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body. The food passes through various levels but the main absorption of food takes place in
the small intestine. Small intestine's mucosa is formed of small finger-like projections known
as villi. These projections into the lumen increase the area of the intestine for food
absorption. Simple sugars like fructose, glucose and amino acids seep into the blood
through the epithelium of small intestine. Starch needs to be broken down to simpler forms
of sugars to be absorbed by the epithelium so with the action of P. Amylase the starch is
broken into maltose and later into glucose with help of enzyme sucrose (El Aidy et al, 2015).
Protein is broken down into peptides and dipeptides with help of trypsin and chymotrypsin
that will then convert to an amino acid that can be absorbed through epithelium into the
blood. Fats are being digested by bile and converted to monoglycerides. These all molecules
and substances are absorbed in the small intestine later these glucose molecules, fatty
acids, triglycerides, amino acids etc. are ultimately converted to ATP through different cycles
of cell respiration and process of cell metabolism. ATP is the unit of energy that is being
stored in cell mitochondria and is essential for cell growth and nutrition.
(Online source- http://biology-igcse.weebly.com/absorption-ndash-function-of-the-small-
intestine-and-significance-of-villi.html ).
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2.3 How body coordinates internal activities as homeostasis and feedback
loops
Body coordinates in a manner that every organ and cell works in collaboration with one
another to achieve homeostasis. Homeostasis is defined as coordination and maintenance
of an internal environment of the body. Even when the external environment of the body
changes the internal environment remains constant that is referred as homeostasis. Most of
the homeostasis utilized nervous pathways these pathways involve a mechanism of bringing
the sensory message into the brain and taking nerve messages from brain (IJzerman et al,
2015). Most of the homeostasis pathways are followed by negative and positive feedback
system where the negative system works by shutting original system and reduces intensity,
whereas positive feedback increases the original stimulus and pushes the variable farther.
For ex. Blood regulation system through negative feedback involves when the body sense
hyperglycaemia the pancreatic beta cells work as the control centre and releases insulin into
blood simultaneously glucose is taken up by the liver and muscle cells hence it reduces the
blood sugar level.
(Online source- http://slideplayer.com/slide/5948322/ ).
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Homeostatic regulation of body temperature through positive feedback mechanism involves
sweating, vasodilation and vasoconstriction as per the external stimulus is present that will
manage to regulate the human body temperature. Sweating will increase heat loss and
regulate temperature if the external environment is hot, vasodilation will cause more blood
flow and maintain regulation when the external environment becomes cold. Constriction of
vessels will occur if the need for heat loss arises. This system will regulate body temperature
by positive feedback and increase the stimulus more to regulate the main process of the
body. Positive feedback sometimes becomes harmful for the body as for ex. the rise in
temperature constantly can produce fever and that can be harmful to the body (Flouris &
Schlader, 2015).
(Online source- http://moodle2.rockyview.ab.ca/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?
id=52013).
Task 3
3.1 Methods to record routine measures its ethical considerations and uses
for diagnosis and treatment-
Routine measures is defined as the routine tests and recordings of body vitals and signs that
can reveal lots of things related to normal and abnormal human physiology and functioning
of the body. In given case the old man is referred to have routine tests and recordings to
diagnose the cause of chest pain. The vitals to be recorded are blood pressure, temperature,
heart rate and respiratory rate (Boswell et al, 2015). As the patient is already presented with
the history of hypertension the chest pain can be due to respiratory and more probably
cardiovascular cause secondary to hypertension. To records temperature the healthcare
provider may use thermometer the device which measures human body temperature. The
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best readings can be extracted from armpit or oral temperature. The normal temperature
range is 97.8 degree. To record blood pressure a medical professional may use either by the
palpatory method or auscultatory method either ways the range of the systolic and diastolic
pressure of the blood in vessels should be in the range of 120/80 mmHg to have the normal
working of the body. In case of increased blood pressure the risk to cardiovascular diseases
increases as it enhances the chances of coronary artery disease and heart attack. The
respiratory rate is recorded by counting the respiration cycle completed by the patient in
one minute normal range is from 18to 20 per minute. Pulse rate or heart rate is recorded by
measuring the pulse per minute that should be 72 beats per minute. The pulse can be
recorded from radial or ulnar artery of either arm (Nelson et al, 2015). The routine
measures have to be recorded by following various ethical consideration and code of
conduct that includes maintenance of patient’s dignity and respect. The routine measures
should never be recorded in a public place or in manner that can hamper the patient’s
privacy. Patient should always be taken to a room or a setting with privacy to get his routine
measures recorded. Consent with the patient before examining and recording the measures
should be taken either verbally explain the procedure and ask the patient to perform it on
him when he is comfortable. Aspects such as confidentiality are important as any data
related to patient and his medical information cannot be given to anyone without his
concern under the Data Protection Act, 2005 (Grace & DRN, 2017).
The use of these routine measures is very crucial as it enables a healthcare provider to make
prompt and point diagnosis, plan a treatment and relate the symptoms to the current
condition of the patient. As in given case, the patient is hypertensive and complains of chest
pain this can be due to underlying cardiovascular disease or cardiac arrest due to increased
and chronic hypertension. Getting routine measures recorded will allow the physician to
rule out the diseases and causes for the chest pain.
3.2 How are these routine measures useful in providing information?
Routine measures include recording vital signs of a human body these vital signs are
responsible for normal body physiology and can be recorded to diagnose and differentiate
various medical conditions. It is useful to record these routine measures as it provides wide
information regarding the normal body functioning. Measuring temperature, blood
pressure, heart rate, ECG and hemodynamic are easy and valid tools to monitor the working
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