Human Anatomy and Physiology: A Comprehensive Study of Body Systems and Age-Related Changes

This assignment delves into the intricate workings of the human body, exploring key anatomical features, cellular metabolism, and the role of growth hormone. It examines the body's response to everyday activities like eating, focusing on the digestive system's cellular and tissue structure. The assignment further investigates the concept of homeostasis and feedback loops, highlighting how the body coordinates internal activities. It then explores the methods used to record routine measures, their ethical considerations, and their diagnostic and treatment applications. Finally, the assignment analyzes the impact of age on body structure and function, using the example of an elderly woman with arthritis and type II diabetes, and discusses the effects of these conditions on routine care.

Contents
Introduction...........................................................................................................................................1
Task 1.....................................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Main anatomical features in body...............................................................................................1
1.2 Cellular metabolism and role of growth hormone in metabolism...............................................4
Task 2.....................................................................................................................................................5
2.1 Normal body response to everyday activity that is eating...........................................................5
2.2 Cellular and tissue structure in discussed system physiology......................................................7
2.3 How body coordinates internal activities as homeostasis and feedback loops...........................8
Task 3.....................................................................................................................................................9
3.1 Methods to record routine measures its ethical considerations and uses for diagnosis.............9
3.2 How are these routine measures useful in providing information?...........................................10
3.3 How such information can help in care planning.......................................................................11
Task 4...................................................................................................................................................12
4.1 How age may affect the body structure and functioning...........................................................12
4.2 Impact of mentioned condition on body structure and function...............................................13
4.3 Effects of condition on routine care given to the patient..........................................................13
Conclusion...........................................................................................................................................16
References...........................................................................................................................................18
1

Introduction
The human body is made up of various organs and organ systems that work together and
individually to bring the proper functioning of the body. These systems are complex series of
organs that work with collaboration to one another following the concepts of physiology
that help in forming better body functioning and promoting health and well-being. This
assignment discusses various systems of the body to support human physiology; it also
includes linked functioning of human anatomy with physiology and the effects of age and
disease on the human body.
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Task 1
1.1 Main anatomical features in the body
The body consists of various organ systems including the cardiovascular system, digestive,
nervous, urinary, skeleton, endocrine, respiratory etc. these systems contain various organs
that are essential in the context of human anatomy and physiology and are required to run
common and normal body functioning.
Nervous system-
The nervous system is considered as the chief and controlling centre of the body that
coordinates various functions and even other systems. It is responsible for both voluntary
and involuntary functioning of the human body. The system contains brain, spinal cord and
nerves. The widespread network of nerves throughout the body forms the peripheral
nervous system and brain and spinal cord forms the central nervous system (Sherwood,
2015). The three main function of the central nervous system includes encoding the sensory
input, integrating the messages and motor responses to provide the functioning to a
particular part of the body. The nervous system is responsible for complete coordination of
body, the brain is the essential part that is characterized to have various complex functions
that help in thinking, decision making and learning.
(Online source- http://www.recoveryaftertraining.net/the-nervous-system/ ).
Cardiovascular system-
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The cardiovascular system is also known as a human circulatory system that is responsible
for pumping and providing oxygenated blood to the whole body. The system consists of
heart and blood vessels mainly arteries, veins and capillaries. These blood vessels are
responsible for transferring blood from heart to various body parts and vice versa. The heart
is an essential organ of the human body that helps in pumping blood to all the body parts.
Blood flows through four heart chambers and is pumped to various body organs through
arteries (Fox, 2006). Veins are responsible for bringing blood back to heart and capillaries
are the small thin vessels that carry blood to the periphery and where the oxygen and gas
exchange occurs. It also carries nutrients, cell waste and hormones to different parts of the
body.
(Online source- https://www.dreamstime.com/stock-illustration-kids-body-circulatory-
system-human-anatomy-image90997102 ).
Digestive system-
Human beings eat food and this food is absorbed by the body through a set of process that
is called digestion. The absorbed food is utilized to get energy for the body and nutrients for
the organs and cells. The food ingested goes through six processes these include ingestion,
propulsion, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion, absorption and defecation. These six
steps explain the complete function of digestive system. The human digestive system
consists of a chain of organs including mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, liver, small
intestine, large intestine and colon (Stanfield, 2012). The digestive system helps in breaking
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down the complex food into a simpler form to be absorbed by the body and used by the
cells. The whole process functions in collaboration with other organ systems and helps in
normal health. Some accessory organs also are part of this system including salivary glands,
pancreas and gallbladder; these organs help in digestion of food but have an association
with other systems too (Rizzo, 2015).
(Online source- https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/digestive-
system-how-it-works ).
1.2 Cellular metabolism and role of growth hormone in metabolism
Cellular metabolism is defined as the chemical activities going on in cells to maintain life. It
is the process of extracting the energy from organic substances or food we eat. The cellular
metabolism includes absorption, breakdown and excretion of carbohydrates, proteins, fats,
minerals, lipids and enzymes in the body.it has two pathways either catabolic or anabolic
the chief aim of both is to convert food into ATP (Herman, 2016). Cell metabolism initiates
with the process of catabolism that includes breaking down of the substances using
enzymatic action. Larger molecules are broken down into a smaller form and so on to be
utilized by the cells. Carbohydrates are broken down by enzymes into monosaccharide and
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disaccharides by process of hydrolysis that is splitting by water. When the breakdown of
components take place the energy is released cells get their energy from the chemical
energy that is generated by catabolism or breaking down of bonds (Shier, Butler & Lewis,
2017). All the molecules are at the end converted to glucose that is the simplest unit
absorbed by the body to make ATP that is the unit of energy stored in the body. Glycolysis
occurs and glucose is converted to ATP, this process can occur in both ways either
aerobically and non-aerobically the end product of both the methods will be the production
of ATP. Even other molecules such as lipids, protein etc. are converted to glucose and ATP
via different methods such as Krebs cycle, glycolysis, citric acid cycle or electron control
chain. Cell respiration takes place to convert the molecules to form ATP that will be required
as the energy unit for cells in the body (VanPutte, Regan & Russo, 2017).
Growth hormone is the hormone secreted by the pituitary gland that has the main function
to promote growth and development of the body tissues and organs. Somatotropin is
another name for growth hormone and it has various functions such as the development of
chondrocytes and cartilages, increases calcium retention, promotes lipolysis and protein
synthesis, enhances the growth of all internal organs excluding brain, helps in maintaining
homeostasis, helps in gluconeogenesis in the liver, stimulates the immune system. Growth
hormone is essential in cellular metabolism and helps in growth as seen that it helps in
gluconeogenesis in the liver that is a process of formation of new glucose molecules to be
utilized in forming ATP that is the chief aim of cell respiration and source of energy for the
body. The imbalances of growth hormone in the body can lead to a disorder like the
increase production of the hormone can cause acromegaly or gigantism and decreased
production leads to hypoglycemia as it will hamper the gluconeogenesis in liver and weak
physic with mental retardation as its complications (Devesa, Almengló & Devesa, 2016).
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(Online source- http://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/19/1/290 ).
Task 2
2.1 Normal body response to everyday activity that is eating
The process of eating is done by every individual every day and is a basic necessity of life.
The eating process is the procedure of digestion and ingestion of food to be used to produce
energy for cells. As the food is taken in the mouth the two process takes place here that
helps in the formation of the bolus that can be swallowed and reach the stomach. The food
is being chewed by the teeth in the mouth that is mechanical grinding and breakdown of
food simultaneously saliva is secreted from salivary glands that help in the formation of
bolus softening the food molecules. Saliva also contains enzyme ptyalin that helps in the
breakdown of food molecules. The bolus of food is now swallowed into oesophagus here
the walls of oesophagus shows peristalsis movement and sends the food into the stomach.
Food now reaches stomach where certain enzymes are secreted as amylase pepsin that
helps in digestion of food liver also adds bile and other enzymes for the breakdown of food
into a simpler form (McKinley, O'Loughlin & Bidle, 2015). The food is here mixed and formed
as chyme that is simpler and broken down form. Chyme enters small intestine where the
walls of the small intestine are finger-like projections with villi that help in mixing the food
with enzymes and form chyme that can be absorbed and utilized to generate energy in cells.
Here the food is being broken down more, absorbed and the residue is passed to large
intestine for excretion. The amount of enzymatic secretion from the small intestine is
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determined by the quantity of chyme. The more is the chyme the more is the secretion and
absorption of nutrients from it. The residue or waste products are then passed to large
intestine that is the last part of the digestive tract. Here the residue from the small intestine
is passed through and water molecules and minerals are absorbed in this stage also. The
rest of the residue or waste product are passed down to colon and excreted from the
human body. The food is being absorbed to get nutrients energy and minerals from it so
these products can be used by the organs and cells in the body to gain energy and work
efficiently.
(Online source- http://healthlifemedia.com/healthy/understanding-digestive-system-
physiology/ ).
2.2 Cellular and tissue structure in discussed system physiology
The cellular and tissue component of every system is responsible for the physiological
functioning of the body. In given discussion, the digestive system is being discussed where
the food is eaten and being digested by the organs of the digestive tract to nourish the
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body. The food passes through various levels but the main absorption of food takes place in
the small intestine. Small intestine's mucosa is formed of small finger-like projections known
as villi. These projections into the lumen increase the area of the intestine for food
absorption. Simple sugars like fructose, glucose and amino acids seep into the blood
through the epithelium of small intestine. Starch needs to be broken down to simpler forms
of sugars to be absorbed by the epithelium so with the action of P. Amylase the starch is
broken into maltose and later into glucose with help of enzyme sucrose (El Aidy et al, 2015).
Protein is broken down into peptides and dipeptides with help of trypsin and chymotrypsin
that will then convert to an amino acid that can be absorbed through epithelium into the
blood. Fats are being digested by bile and converted to monoglycerides. These all molecules
and substances are absorbed in the small intestine later these glucose molecules, fatty
acids, triglycerides, amino acids etc. are ultimately converted to ATP through different cycles
of cell respiration and process of cell metabolism. ATP is the unit of energy that is being
stored in cell mitochondria and is essential for cell growth and nutrition.
(Online source- http://biology-igcse.weebly.com/absorption-ndash-function-of-the-small-
intestine-and-significance-of-villi.html ).
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2.3 How body coordinates internal activities as homeostasis and feedback
loops
Body coordinates in a manner that every organ and cell works in collaboration with one
another to achieve homeostasis. Homeostasis is defined as coordination and maintenance
of an internal environment of the body. Even when the external environment of the body
changes the internal environment remains constant that is referred as homeostasis. Most of
the homeostasis utilized nervous pathways these pathways involve a mechanism of bringing
the sensory message into the brain and taking nerve messages from brain (IJzerman et al,
2015). Most of the homeostasis pathways are followed by negative and positive feedback
system where the negative system works by shutting original system and reduces intensity,
whereas positive feedback increases the original stimulus and pushes the variable farther.
For ex. Blood regulation system through negative feedback involves when the body sense
hyperglycaemia the pancreatic beta cells work as the control centre and releases insulin into
blood simultaneously glucose is taken up by the liver and muscle cells hence it reduces the
blood sugar level.
(Online source- http://slideplayer.com/slide/5948322/ ).
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Homeostatic regulation of body temperature through positive feedback mechanism involves
sweating, vasodilation and vasoconstriction as per the external stimulus is present that will
manage to regulate the human body temperature. Sweating will increase heat loss and
regulate temperature if the external environment is hot, vasodilation will cause more blood
flow and maintain regulation when the external environment becomes cold. Constriction of
vessels will occur if the need for heat loss arises. This system will regulate body temperature
by positive feedback and increase the stimulus more to regulate the main process of the
body. Positive feedback sometimes becomes harmful for the body as for ex. the rise in
temperature constantly can produce fever and that can be harmful to the body (Flouris &
Schlader, 2015).
(Online source- http://moodle2.rockyview.ab.ca/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?
id=52013).
Task 3
3.1 Methods to record routine measures its ethical considerations and uses
for diagnosis and treatment-
Routine measures is defined as the routine tests and recordings of body vitals and signs that
can reveal lots of things related to normal and abnormal human physiology and functioning
of the body. In given case the old man is referred to have routine tests and recordings to
diagnose the cause of chest pain. The vitals to be recorded are blood pressure, temperature,
heart rate and respiratory rate (Boswell et al, 2015). As the patient is already presented with
the history of hypertension the chest pain can be due to respiratory and more probably
cardiovascular cause secondary to hypertension. To records temperature the healthcare
provider may use thermometer the device which measures human body temperature. The
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best readings can be extracted from armpit or oral temperature. The normal temperature
range is 97.8 degree. To record blood pressure a medical professional may use either by the
palpatory method or auscultatory method either ways the range of the systolic and diastolic
pressure of the blood in vessels should be in the range of 120/80 mmHg to have the normal
working of the body. In case of increased blood pressure the risk to cardiovascular diseases
increases as it enhances the chances of coronary artery disease and heart attack. The
respiratory rate is recorded by counting the respiration cycle completed by the patient in
one minute normal range is from 18to 20 per minute. Pulse rate or heart rate is recorded by
measuring the pulse per minute that should be 72 beats per minute. The pulse can be
recorded from radial or ulnar artery of either arm (Nelson et al, 2015). The routine
measures have to be recorded by following various ethical consideration and code of
conduct that includes maintenance of patient’s dignity and respect. The routine measures
should never be recorded in a public place or in manner that can hamper the patient’s
privacy. Patient should always be taken to a room or a setting with privacy to get his routine
measures recorded. Consent with the patient before examining and recording the measures
should be taken either verbally explain the procedure and ask the patient to perform it on
him when he is comfortable. Aspects such as confidentiality are important as any data
related to patient and his medical information cannot be given to anyone without his
concern under the Data Protection Act, 2005 (Grace & DRN, 2017).
The use of these routine measures is very crucial as it enables a healthcare provider to make
prompt and point diagnosis, plan a treatment and relate the symptoms to the current
condition of the patient. As in given case, the patient is hypertensive and complains of chest
pain this can be due to underlying cardiovascular disease or cardiac arrest due to increased
and chronic hypertension. Getting routine measures recorded will allow the physician to
rule out the diseases and causes for the chest pain.
3.2 How are these routine measures useful in providing information?
Routine measures include recording vital signs of a human body these vital signs are
responsible for normal body physiology and can be recorded to diagnose and differentiate
various medical conditions. It is useful to record these routine measures as it provides wide
information regarding the normal body functioning. Measuring temperature, blood
pressure, heart rate, ECG and hemodynamic are easy and valid tools to monitor the working
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of different aspects of the human body (Stewart et al, 2017). As the temperature when
measured the normal range is 97.8 degree if the temperature rises beyond 100 degrees the
patient is said to be febrile. As in given case, the blood pressure if recorded is beyond the
normal range that is 120/80 mmHg than the patient is hypertensive and hypertension, if
found to be associated with increased heart rate, can be a sign of heart disease or cardiac
anomaly. The heartbeat when rises more than 100 or 150 beats per minute associated with
other factors may indicate a stroke or heart attack. Respiration rate is the per minute breath
cycles an individual completes it may rise in case of fever and respiratory illness whereas it
may decrease with other medical condition too (Keene et al, 2017). Here the patient is
suffering from hypertension so it may vary his respiratory rate and pattern too. Swelling and
puffiness on face and ankles can determine the kidney damage and disease with symptoms
like anorexia, weight loss, difficulty in urination etc. hemodynamic tests and routine
measures include thyroid recording that is a hormone released by thyroid gland the increase
or decrease of this hormone can cause various symptoms in the body and is characterized as
hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. Increased platelet and white blood cells may indicate
infection in the body that can be ruled out with further tests. These tests and records make
it easy for the medical professional to reach a diagnosis and make decision-related to
treatment planning of the patient for the present condition.
3.3 How such information can help in care planning
In the given case the old man is presented with hypertension and chest pain this
information can reveal a lot associated with the routine measures to prepare a treatment
plan for him to improve his health and well-being. The patient complains of chest pain and is
found to be hypertensive that can be due to cardiac illness underlying. The healthcare team
can make following interventions and plan to monitor and control his blood pressure that
includes medication, healthy diet, physical activity and rest. Other than these measures the
care home has to make sure that the cardiac output remains in the normal range as if the
heartbeat increases it may affect the heart and causes increased chances of stroke and
cardiac arrest. Central and peripheral pulses are to be monitored timely to keep a check on
heart rate. Acute pain in the chest as presented with can be a sign of acute cardiac illness
such as angina or can be due to chronic ailment such as coronary artery disease so the
nature of pain and monitoring of pain should be done adequately (Bell, Twiggs, Olin & Date,
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2015). Bed rest with pain medications can be given to treat the pain. To make the patient
aware of his condition and educate him to take proper care of this health (Teixeira et al,
2015). Majority of diseases occur due to a deficiency in knowledge as the patient does not
know how to monitor their health and manage it. Proper information and education on how
to manage their lifestyle and health can help in reducing the severe risk factors and
maintaining healthy and normal life.
Task 4
4.1 How age may affect the body structure and functioning
As in given case, the lady is old and suffering from arthritis and type II diabetes. Type II
diabetes is the process by which body produces more insulin but the cells cannot use that
insulin due to the ill formation or insulin resistance. Medication and insulin doses are
required to treat this kind of diabetes. The effects of ageing can be seen on the various
system in given scenario the effect of age on a nervous and respiratory system of the lady is
been discussed.
Effects on the nervous system- without any disease and in proper health the nervous system
can work efficiently past 80 years even but due to illness and various disorders in body with
age being the factor nervous system starts to deteriorate. The learning ability of the person
decreases due to the increased lag time of neurons in the brain. Lowering of motor reflexes
causes low mobility and movement and slow working with age. Since early adulthood, the
brain starts to lose as per 2% per decade and the loss is of the grey matter of the brain that
causes a reduction in smell sense, vision, slow movements and insomnia. As the age
advances the neural activity of brain reduces and the sensory and motor both output and
integration gets deficit that leads to impaired neural senses (Patterson et al, 2015).
Effects on respiratory system- as the patient presented is old and already has a history of
diabetes that is a major cause to get other disease and comorbidities the respiratory process
will also get hamper due to age. The efficacy of lungs directly is related to the age of a
person. The amount of oxygen supplied to bloodstream and blood flow declines with
increasing age. The lung capacity may remain constant but the ability of lung tissue to
transfer oxygen to blood decreases with age and the nature and texture of tissue changes.
Glandular cells in the airway are reduced cilia are decreased that makes it difficult for
14

respiration (Lumb, 2016). In old age, the reflex of coughing is also decreased. The alveoli
decreases in lungs and the walls become thin simultaneously it loses its elasticity and
enlarges. As the bones become brittle and thinner the rib cage also is affected and the
elasticity reduces making it more prone to fracture and reduced the efficiency of breathing.
4.2 Impact of mentioned condition on body structure and function
The above-mentioned conditions are type II diabetes associated with old age and leg wound
that is not healing and is also having arthritis from some past years. These conditions have a
great impact on her health and well-being in the following manner-
Type II diabetes affects her health by affecting her heart, vessels, kidneys, mental health and
other factors. Diabetes if remains uncontrolled can form various complications such as
coronary artery diseases, diabetic foot, diabetic ketoacidosis, hyperglycaemia, non-ketotic
comma, cerebrovascular disease etc. (Bahtiyar, Gutterman & Lebovitz, 2016). These
complications caused by imbalanced sugar levels in the body can lead to vision loss,
nephropathy, non-healing wounds and leg ulcers known as a diabetic foot. The given case
presents with the leg wound that is not healing it may be due to increased sugar levels in
the body and the wound may get infected it becomes chronic. The leg wound presented can
be infected and can become severe that may lead to leg amputation proper care and aseptic
measures should be taken to avoid any loss of function (Al-Rubeaan et al, 2015).
Arthritis is the disease of joints where the joints become stiff and lose it's functioning. The
patient is suffering from arthritis of knees that makes her mobility reduced and creates pain
and discomfort due to stiffness and swelling. The inflamed knees and stiff joints may further
cause complete impairment of movement and severe pain that is chronic in nature. These
things should be avoided by proper physiotherapy and pain medication whenever required
(Gerrits et al, 2015)
4.3 Effects of condition on routine care given to the patient
The age factor is very crucial that has made the routine measures less effective for the lady
presented in the given case study. Old age associated with comorbidities has an overall
impact on individual's care planning and treatment options. Different diseases will cause
treatment to react in a different way and can lead to not achieving proper outcomes from
the treatment modalities. As the treatment options required for diabetes advice the lady to
15

have some amount of physical activities but as she is suffering from arthritis she cannot
perform any physical activity as advised. As arthritis does not have any cure and even it
increases with age the effect of arthritis causes other factors of old age to enhance less
mobility and neural functioning. The only cure or relieving agent for this disorder will be the
use of painkillers for the lady that can relieve the pain caused due to arthritis to her
(Chamberlain et al, 2016). Diet has to be well-formed with good nourishment and
carbohydrates and sugars to cure the vitamin deficiency but due to diabetes, the diet
cannot contain enough carbohydrates and other essential elements for treating other
disorders. Other methods that can be used to maintain her health is routine screening and
changes in diet plan and lifestyle. The treatment can include the use of proper diet plan with
well nourishes food to reduce vitamin and mineral deficiency. Lifestyle changes may include
some amount of physiotherapy, social activities and other interactive activities to reduce
isolation and chances of another disease to develop. The screening of present conditions
with lab tests and investigations will allow proper diagnosis and treatment of complications
(Combe et al, 2017).
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Conclusion
The physiology of body is interrelated to the anatomical structures formed and works in
collaboration with one another. The given scenario reveals how the age and disease affect
the normal functioning of the body's physiology and causes various symptoms and problems
to attain a healthy and well life. Thus, it can be concluded that the working and functioning
of the body is to be managed by normal physiological principles of the body. Any kind of
hindrance in normal physiology can lead to disease and illness and unhealthy living.
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