Key Studies in Psychology

This document discusses key studies in psychology, including Milgram's study on obedience, Loftus and Palmer's study on memory distortion, Rosenhan's study on psychiatric diagnosis, and more. It explores sampling methods, limitations, and ethical considerations. The second section focuses on the persistence of false beliefs and its impact on memory. The document provides insights into the findings, advantages, and disadvantages of experimental methods, and suggestions for improvement in future studies.

Key studies in psychology

TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................1
SECTION A.....................................................................................................................................1
Sampling methods and participants............................................................................................1
Difficulty to generalize the results which has been produced by the sample.............................1
Outlining procedure of study......................................................................................................1
Evaluating 2 limitations of study................................................................................................2
Examining the findings of 1st experiment...................................................................................2
Evaluating advantages and disadvantage of experimental method.............................................3
Critically investigating how the staff of hospital respond to pseudo patients.............................3
Examining the key ethics of the study........................................................................................3
Evaluating how data has been collected and its limitation.........................................................4
Evaluating the improvement for study........................................................................................4
SECTION B.....................................................................................................................................4
The persistence of false beliefs...................................................................................................4
Analysis of a phobia of a five year old boy................................................................................6
CONCLUSION................................................................................................................................8
REFERENCES................................................................................................................................9

INTRODUCTION
Psychology is referred to as the scientific study of the human mind and the functions
which mainly influence the behaviour of the individual. It is significant in effectively
understanding the behaviour and mind of the person. It is a multi-facet discipline and mainly
comprise of various idea of the study for the human development. This study comprises of two
sections. In the first section, answers specified to the articles has been demonstrated. In the
second section, strengths and weakness of the persistence of false beliefs.
SECTION A
Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioral study of obedience.
Sampling methods and participants.
The key aim of the study is to analyse how far the individual would effectively obey the
instructions if the person gets involved in harming the other person. For carrying out the study,
the volunteers were recruited in order to carry out controlled experiment. The key participants of
the study were 40 males who has been aged between 20 years and 50 years. However, the jobs of
the participants comprise the range of unskilled to professional.
Difficulty to generalize the results which has been produced by the sample.
A controlled experiment tends to compare the results which has been gained from the
experimental samples which has been gained against control samples (Delgadillo, Asaria, Ali, &
Gilbody, (2016)). It is difficult to generalize the results which has been produced by the sample
because it might produce range of artificial results and also the result might apply to only one
specific situation and is difficult to replicate. As per the results, 65% of the participants has
sustained to high degree of 450 volts. Milgram has carried out more than one experiments where
18 variations of the study has been carried out. The situations has been altered in order to see
how it influence the obedience.
Fischer, P., Greitemeyer, T., Pollozek, F., & Frey, D. (2006).
Outlining procedure of study.
The complete study is to mainly based upon the testing of the hypothesis where the psychiatrist
cannot tell the key difference between the individuals who are sane and who are insane. This
study is the key example associated with the field experiment. The manipulation i.e., the
independent variable has significantly made up the symptoms associated with the pseudo
patients. However, the diagnostic level of pseudo patients and psychiatric admission has
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eventually considered to be as the key dependent variable of the study. However, the participants
tends to significantly involve the participant observation. The first part of the study mainly
comprise of 8 sane people (3 women and 5 men) who has been attempted to take admission
within 12 different hospitals within the 5 states of the USA. The pseudo patients stated that, they
have been hearing unfamiliar voices of same sex as themselves (Brooks, (2015)). The voices
sounds like 'hollow', 'empty', 'thud'. These symptoms tends to arise from the key symptoms
which tends to have existential symptoms which has been significantly arisen from the major
concern associated with the meaningless of one’s own life. The pseudo patients in turn has been
given false name and the job. Other than that, all the information has been given true set of
details which mainly comprise of the relationship, general up and down associated with the one’s
own life and various event of history of life. After the admission of the patient to the psychiatric
ward, however the pseudo patient in turn has been stopped the symptoms associated with the
abnormality. The pseudo patients in turn has significantly took part in the activities carried out
within the ward. Every pseudo patients in turn has been asked to come out of the devices by
convincing the staff that they were completely sane. They pseudo patients has also took out time
to write notes based on their observations.
Evaluating 2 limitations of study.
 The hospital staff has been deceived. This is an unethical practice.
 The psychiatrist and the doctors can make a type- 2 error.
Loftus, E.F., & Palmer, J.C. (1974).
Examining the findings of 1st experiment.
The aim of the study was to effectively investigate on the ways where the memory of the
individual person can be influenced on the basis of post event information. The Lotus and Palmer
has effectively carried out two set of laboratory experiments. In the first experiment, the sample
consist of 45 under graduated psychology students were selected from University of Washington.
Both the samples within the study where the eyewitness testimony has been carried out using
opportunity sampling (Cooper, Quick, & Schabracq. (2015)). In this study, all the 45 participants
has been shown 7 film clips associated with varied traffic accidents which has originally been
made part of the driver safety film. The results associated with the experiment 1 examines that,
speed helps in estimating the speed of the participants after watching the video of the car cash.
The critical questions were asked with the given set of 5 verbs. However, the more inaccurate the
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participant has estimated the speed of the car crash it determines the greater distortion to the
memory. The mean speed estimates of the five verbs mainly includes smashed 40.5 mph,
bumped 38.1 mph, collided 39.3 mph, hit 34.0 mph and contacted 31.8 mph. There seems to be 2
possible reason for the results. Firstly, Lotus and Palmer has effectively stated that, the results is
associated with the actual distortion among the memories of the participants. The key
participants of the study has remembered the speed of the car crash more fast as they actually
were. On the other hand, Lotus and Palmer stated that, the results is due to response bias. The
participants of the study has effectively adjusted the estimate of the speed and has not
experienced any sort of actual distortion within the memory.
Evaluating advantages and disadvantage of experimental method.
The key advantage of the experimental method in this study is that the researcher tends to have
complete control over the variables. It is also highly useful in examining the cause and effect
relationship and attain better set of results. However, the major disadvantage of the study is that
it is a time consuming process and the results gain are highly subjective because of the key
possibility of the human error.
Rosenhan, D.L. (1973)
Critically investigating how the staff of hospital respond to pseudo patients.
8 healthy adults has been significantly recruited in order to effective take part within the
experimental procedure (Gillespie‐Smith & et.al. (2018)). All the participants has been
diagnosed with schizophrenia and has been significantly admitted to the hospital in order to take
psychiatric medication. The staff of the hospital has significantly interpreted that, the normal
behaviour is the key sign associated with the mental illness which tends to significantly
demonstrate bias.
Examining the key ethics of the study.
The Rosenhan study has been significantly carried out to effectively investigate on the validity
related with the psychiatric diagnosis. The ethical issue related with the diagnosis of the mental
illness mainly comprise of stigmatization, confirmation bias and stickiness of labels. It is very
crucial to respect and maintain complete dignity of the participants.
Griffiths, M. (2003)
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Evaluating how data has been collected and its limitation.
The participants within the study has been interviewed 3 times formerly. The DSM-IV criteria
for pathological gambling has been effectively utilized. The participants were considered to be as
a former pathological gambler (Thelwell, Harwood, & Greenlees. (2016)). One of the key
significant limitation associated with the study is that, it completely rely upon the retrospective
self- report. The report is subjective to fallibility related with the human memory. The
generalization associated with the finding is highly limited.
Evaluating the improvement for study.
The large samples may confirm with the speculations and observations. Large sample size is
considered to be highly significant in providing accurate set of mean values. It is prominent in
increasing the significance level associated with the findings. It helps in accurately evaluating the
behaviour of the entire group.
SECTION B
The persistence of false beliefs.
The article by Laney, Fowler, Nelson, Bernstein and Loftus the major discussion is about the
belief that does false beliefs last for long. The whole study was based on this only and the main
question within the study was that false beliefs of the memories which are of childhood
experience are remembered or not. From the whole study it was found that the false memories
relating to a specific event will be remembered by the person. In addition to the false memories
the immediate consequences of the false memories are also present in the mind of the human
being. This is majorly because of the reason that the person does not forget the false memories
which the person has encountered during their life (Laney, Fowler Nelson, Bernstein and Loftus,
2008). The individual tends to become convinced in a timely and reliable manner. The present
study tends to effectively demonstrate on the false belief of the individual person. This study is
significant in assessing the consequence of the false belief which tends to result in the false
manipulation of the memory. However, the false memory mainly comprise of the simple false
feedback which has been manipulate designed which is significant in convincing the subjects for
the particular experience among the child (Howitt, (2019)). The memories of the events where
the belief associated with the specific occurrence of the event has been significantly undermined.
The mind where the recollection has been retained is referred to as the non- believable memories.
The false belief is referred to as an understanding where the representation and belief pf the
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individual person associated with the world tends to contrast in the reality. There is a false belief
among the individuals where the child tends to infer another person that the individual does not
possess certain set of knowledge and belief. This study is considered to be highly significant in
effectively evaluating if there is a sign of long term consequences in relation with the particular
eating habit of the child. It has been critically examined that the false memories related with
loving asparagus in childhood is linked with greater fondness for asparagus. This eventually has
resulted in the greater willingness to order the asparagus within restaurant. The individual as a
child tends to have more positive and only little negative feelings associated with the asparagus.
Only few individuals has fewer feelings associated with the disgust at the time of looking at the
picture of asparagus. The key benefits of the study is that, the manipulation at the time of
carrying out the study has been significantly limited. The researcher of the study has
significantly used 368 undergraduate students from the University of the California. The subject
were mostly female. The food history questionnaire has been designed. This study has been
significantly carried out to effectively analyse the subject associated with the false memories
(Mercer & Kostoulas,. (2018)). The subject after the 2 weeks tends to have significant level of
confidence within the new memories and the relevant degree of consequence which has been
linked with the memories has been diminished. Hence, the memory in turn has not been
extinguished. The manipulation within the study in turn has been significant in effectively
evaluating the manipulation in turn has been sufficiently powerful which tends to have effect
upon the actual food choices. The willingness to eat asparagus within the restaurant has been
effectively assessed at the time of both post manipulation and 2 weeks manipulation.
Strengths
The major strength of this study was that all the authors assented and proved the fact that false
memories last in the mind of the people even when they know it is wrong. This study stated that
the as the person knowingly do some wrong or false work so they do not forget the thing and
also remember it for a longer time frame. Another major strength is that this study deals with the
psychology of the human and this is the most important issue which the human faces. Thus, this
study outlines the major fact that false memories affect the psychology of the person and affects
the working and thinking of the person as well. Hence, this study helped in analysing the fact
that when the person ignores the false memories then their life and thinking ability is increased
and this assist the person in having good and normal life. But in against of this the major
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weakness of the study was that this took a very long time to be completed as the whole study was
done in three different sessions. So the result of the study came after a long time of wait and due
to this the effectiveness of the study was a little slow. Another major weakness of the study was
that the false beliefs can be manipulated to a great extent and this was a weakness. This is
particularly because of the reason that when the memories can be manipulated then the people
try to manipulate their memory and convert it in actual and this is not good for the person.
Weaknesses
The false memories tends to have life altering and fatal consequence upon the individual person.
However, the false accusation and convictions in turn has significantly led to conviction to wide
set of crimes which mainly comprise of the sexual abuse of the person. This is highly significant
in making up the memories and tends to affect the brain of the individual person. The key factors
which tends to largely influence the false memories in turn mainly comprise of misattribution
and also misinformation linked with the original source of information (Groome & Eysenck,
(2016)). Existing knowledge and the memories tends to largely interfere and effect the formation
of the new memory. This tends to have effect on the re- collection of the event which has been
entirely mistaken falsely. The preference for the asparagus for the hate believers, love believers,
hate controls and the love controls everything has been reported equivalent set of preference for
the asparagus before any sort of manipulation.
Analysis of a phobia of a five year old boy.
This is one of the key significant which is useful in examining the work of the Feud which is
highly significant in subsequently developing the personality. The researcher of the study tends
to significantly believe that, there seems to be high degree of subsequent development within the
personality. The children tends to significantly experience wide set of emotional conflicts. This
study helps in determining the future adjustments which helps in effectively evaluating how the
conflict has been resolved. Another key concern which is mainly linked with the study is the
concern associated with unconscious mind. However, the researcher has stated that, the
unconscious mind contains wide set of unresolved conflicts which has significant set of powerful
effect upon the dreams and fantasies. These conflicts are considered to be life threatening and
tends to appear in the disguised form. The key strength of this specific study which has been
significantly carried out by the Freud tends to be very useful because it helps in revealing and
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effectively treating the key origins which are linked with the abnormal behaviour of the
individual person. The psychotherapy tends to significantly rely upon the detailed history
associated with the case which will be useful in gaining the better set of understanding and also
helping the client (Freud, Sigmund. (1909) Analysis of a phobia of a five-year-old boy, 2020).
The case study provided by the researcher is considered to be highly significant because it is
useful in providing wide set of clear picture which is useful in producing wide set of the
qualitative data. Moreover, the Freud tends to have positive set of relationship with the Hans and
father because the analysis has resulted in wide set of progress. However, the discussion with the
boy is in highly detailed manner and is largely intimae which is useful in gaining wide set of
information.
Weakness
One of the key major weakness associated with the case study is that, it mainly relates with the
one individual. It is very crucial for the researcher in effectively analysing the one individual and
tends to focus on generalize the key results of the findings. This study tends to have no
significant way in effectively analysing and appropriately assessing the typical little hans. It is
very crucial in this study to effectively analyse the key significant relationship between the Little
Hans, father and Freud and helps in examining whether the data can be generalized or not. The
major weakness of this study is that, the interpretation of the Freud is mainly dependent upon the
interpreting the phobia of the son (Lane, (2015)). Another major weakness of the study is that,
the Freud has only seen the Little Hans in one or two occasions. This eventually results in the
wide set of drastic reduction within the particularity and the objectivity of the father.
Findings
The key significant finding of the study is that, the 1st report of the Little Hans has been carried
out whgen the individual was 3 year old and he has developed interest within the widdler. One of
the key significant problem which is linked with the ethnocentric and androcentric. This study
also focuses on effectively describing the Oedipus complex because the Freud tends to believe
that each individual must be effectively experience this stage (Delgadillo, Asaria, Ali, &
Gilbody, (2016)). This study helps Freud in examining why the female individuals tends to have
wide set of traumatic memories upon sexual encounters with the father.
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CONCLUSION
From the conducted study it has been summarized that, the false memory mainly comprise
of the simple false feedback which has been manipulate designed which is significant in
convincing the subjects for the particular experience among the child. Existing knowledge and
the memories tends to largely interfere and effect the formation of the new memory. The children
tends to significantly experience wide set of emotional conflicts. It is very crucial for the
researcher in effectively analysing the one individual and tends to focus on generalize the key
results of the findings.
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REFERENCES
Books and Journals
Arnold, J & et.al.. (2016). Work psychology. Pearson Education UK.
Brooks, J. (2015). Learning from the lifeworld: Introducing alternative approaches to
phenomenology in psychology. The Psychologist, 28(8), 642-643.
Cooper, C., Quick, J. C., & Schabracq, M. J. (Eds.). (2015). International handbook of work and
health psychology. John Wiley & Sons.
Delgadillo, J., Asaria, M., Ali, S., & Gilbody, S. (2016). On poverty, politics and psychology: the
socioeconomic gradient of mental healthcare utilisation and outcomes. The British Journal of
Psychiatry, 209(5), 429-430.
Gillespie‐Smith, K & et.al. (2018). The I in autism: Severity and social functioning in autism are
related to self‐processing. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 36(1), 127-141.
Groome, D., & Eysenck, M. (2016). An introduction to applied cognitive psychology.
Psychology Press.
Howitt, D. (2019). Introduction to qualitative research methods in psychology: Putting theory
into practice. Pearson UK.
Lane, A. M. (Ed.). (2015). Sport and exercise psychology. Routledge.
Laney, C., Fowler, N. B., Nelson, K. J., Bernstein, D. M., & Loftus, E. F. (2008). The persistence
of false beliefs. Acta Psychologica, 129(1), 190-197.
Mercer, S., & Kostoulas, A. (Eds.). (2018). Language teacher psychology. Multilingual Matters.
Thelwell, R., Harwood, C., & Greenlees, I. (Eds.). (2016). The psychology of sports coaching:
research and practice. Routledge.
Online
Freud, Sigmund. (1909) Analysis of a phobia of a five-year-old boy. 2020. [ONLINE]. Available
through<holah.karoo.net/freudstudy.htm>
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