Method of Gene Modification of Crops

Running head: MASTERS OF SCIENCE
Masters of Science
Name of the Student
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Abstract:
The term GMC can be defined as Genetically Modified Crops can be defined as those plants the
DNA of which has been modified by the use of genetic engineering methods. Insect resistant
GMC can be defined as those crops which have been prepared by botanists in such a way that
they are toxic to certain kinds of insects. The usage of GMC is controversial since according to
several scientists GMC impose negative impact on the environment by destroying the
biodiversity. The aim of the research is to find out whether GMC are safe for the ecosystem or
not. Finally it has been found that the usage of GMC has imposed several positive impacts on
the environment and is safe for biodiversity.

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Table of Contents
Introduction:....................................................................................................................................3
Discussion........................................................................................................................................4
Method of gene modification of crops........................................................................................4
Negative effects of insect-resistant GMC on ecosystem.............................................................6
Theory against the negative effect of GMC.................................................................................8
Conclusion......................................................................................................................................10
Reference List:...............................................................................................................................11

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Introduction:
Since the time immemorial, farmers are trying to minimize the negative impact of crop pests.
Insects like nematodes, bacteria along with viruses and fungus causes immense destruction of
crops that impose negative impact on the economy of a country. For instance, the Irish Potato
famine in the 1800s, had resulted in the death of more than 1 million individuals and a large
scale of emigration (Azadi et al. 2015). In early centuries, farmers used to collect seeds only
from high yielding plants as a preventive measure from pests. With the advent in genetic
engineering, genes from insect resistance can be moved into plants. This technology is known
as Bacillus Thuringienis or Bt Technologies.
With the emergence of genetically modified crops, the question whether genetically modified
crops impose positive or negative impact on the environment has raised. While Genetically
Modified Crops (GMC), has the ability to help the farmers to use fewer chemical insecticides,
these crop may end up misbalancing the ecosystem. According to several scientists, GM foods
bear a special environmental threat and hence should be used carefully (Han et al. 2015). The
National Research Council stated that improper or over usage of GM technology may leads to
disastrous results. For instance, farmers who plants herbicide-resistant GM crops often give rise
to herbicide-resistant superweeds. Apart from that, it has been also found that overplanting of
Bt Crops has resulted in birth of a new breed off resistant insects in some fields. However, the
National Research Council is not able to convince that insect-resistant GMCs are inherently
riskier. According to them, insect resistant GMCs are safe as long as they are properly used
(Gurau and Ranchhod 2016).

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The chief purpose of this assignment is to find out whether GMC are safe for the ecosystem or
not. The objectives of the report include analysis of the method of gene modification of crops,
negative effect as well as the positive effect of gene modification of crops.
Discussion
Method of gene modification of crops
Considering the fact that any living organisms including plants, possess natural barrier to
protect themselves against implementation of another species’ DNA, genetic engineers have to
force DNA from one organism to another.
Botanists chiefly modify the gene of the crops by the six below mentioned techniques:
Crossbreeding: The mentioned technique involves cross-pollination of two sexually compatible
crops in order to produce a hybrid. This technique is a primitive technique of modifying crops
genetically in order to create brand new species. Some of the examples of cross breed crops are
Plumcot which is a hybrid of Plum and Apricot, Limequat, which is a hybrid of lime and Kumquat
and most famously Rabbage which is a hybrid of Radish and Cabbage (Klümper and Qaim 2014).
Mutagenesis: This technique was founded by Hermann Muller, Charlotte Auerbach and J. M.
Robson during the 20 the Century (Benbrook 2012). This gene modification technique results in
genetic changes that can add, delete or switch nucleotides. These genetic changes are induced
by radiation by the plant breeders since Mutagenesis has the capability to enhance the traits of
the crop. For instance, the deeper colour in grapefruit is produced by the above-mentioned
technique.

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Protoplast Fusion: In this method, two plant cells which have their protoplasts removed, are
taken and allowed to stick together in a chemical solution named polyethylene solution. Once
the two cells got stuck together, various kinds of chemicals are added to help the cells exchange
genetic information and finally create a hybrid plant cell.
Polyploidy: This technique is by plant breeders to control reproduction in plants. By this
technique, sterilized seeds are soaked in colchicine in order to make them fertile. One of the
examples of Polyploidy crop includes Triticale which is a hybrid of Rye and wheat (Pardo-Lopez
Soberon and Bravo 2012).
Genome Editing: In this process, molecular scissors are used to cut, insert or replace genes
within the seed cells. These nucleases are designed through artificial engineering so that they
can be accurately placed in the desired traits or genes. One of the most common examples of
Genome editing is the Herbicide tolerant Canola plant (Barrows, Sexton and Zilberman 2014).
The mentioned plant is specially created by genetic engineers in order to help farmers in
controlling weeds.

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Figure 1: Cultivation of GMC in U.S. A.
Source (Qaim and Kouser 2013)
Methods of inserting Transgenes
Two principal methods of transgene insertion are as follows:
Gene Gun: This method includes shooting transgene fragment at a very high velocity into cell or
tissue of the plants. In this process, a microscopic pallet of Tungsten or gold is coated with the
transgene fragment to be shot. When the pallet passes through the tissue or cell, the DNA
fragment remains behind and gets incorporated into a plant chromosome in the cell nucleolus
(Onstad 2013).
Agrobacterium tumefaciens:

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The Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a soil dwelling bacteria that transfers a part of its
own DNA into the plant's cell and as a result, the plant suffers from Crown Gall diseases.
Genetic engineers have taken the advantage of these DNA transfer mechanism while disarming
the disease-causing properties. In the above-mentioned method, both bacterial cells and plants
are co-cultivated in a petri dish under controlled condition (Sanvido et al. 2012). Thus genes get
transferred in this process in a more controlled way compared to that of the Gene Gun method.
However, one of the major disadvantages of the mentioned method is that it does not work
equally well in all spices of the plant.
Negative effects of insect-resistant GMC on ecosystem
Damage to natural biocontrol agents
Biological control may be defined as the method of controlling pests that includes, insects,
weed, mites and other plant diseases using other organisms. Unlike using artificial methods to
conserve crops, the biocontrol method relies on predation, herbivory, parasitism and another
natural mechanism (Rovner et al. 2015). Three basic biocontrol measures include classical
control where a natural enemy of the pests are introduced in the field to kill them, inductive
control, where a large population of natural enemies are administered for quick pest control
and finally, inoculative control where measurements are taken to maintain the natural flow of
pest enemies through regular reestablishment. However, it has been seen that insect resistant
crops are causing immense damage to the bio-control agent (Li et al. 2014). Along with the
pests, biocontrol agents like Tobacco hornworms and Syrphus Hoverfly Larva are getting killed

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when they are consuming the infected pests. This, in turn, is imposing an immense negative
impact on the environment.
Pollen-mediated gene flow
With the emergence of the genetically modified crop in a large scale, ecological
concerns of the transgene movement from GM crop to nom-GM Counterparts as well as wild
relatives have arrived. The term, pollen-mediated gene flow can be defined as a process by
which pollen grains of one crop is carried to the flower of another crop for fertilities. The whole
process of fertilization is performed by pollinating agents like bees and butterflies (Pardo-Lopez,
Soberon and Bravo 2012). However, during the pollination process in insect resistant GMCs,
pollinators are not able to transfer pollen grains since they are getting intoxicated by the insect
resistant crops. As a result, the breeding process of the crops is getting hampered which, in
turn, imposes an immense negative effect on the productivity of the crops and financial
condition of the farmers in the long run (Carstens et al. 2012).
Effect on biodiversity
According to researchers, the insect resistant crops have alleviates the negative impact of
agriculture on biodiversity (Lazebnik et al. 2017). Prior to the insect-resistant genetically
modified crops, farms used to use insecticides and herbicides to prevent the destruction of
crops by insects. This, in turn, imposed an immense negative impact on the environment.
According to the researchers, GM crops if used in a balanced way has resulted in increased
yields, decrement in the usage of insecticides, increment in the usage of more environment-
friendly herbicides and finally facilitation in the adaptation of conservation tillage (Mandell et

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al. 2015). Thus GM crop has contributed to increased agricultural sustainability with the help of
conservation tillage practices. Conservation tillage practice can be defined as a method of soil
cultivation that involves leaving the crop residue of the previous year on the field before and
after planting a new crop in order to reduce soil erosion. Priory this was not possible since this
process used to enhance the breed of insects in the fields. Thus, it can be understood that with
the emergence of insect-resistant crops, soil erosion has decreased to a great extent.
Moreover, according to researchers, the potential impact of Bt crops on the soil organism is
negligible. Along with that, since GM crops have enhanced the yields, the pressure of
converting natural habitat into agricultural use has been greatly reduced (Rovner et al. 2015).
Plants Expressing Multiple Toxins
A major challenge for the genetic engineers is to prevent the development of resistance o the
insects to Bacillus Thurigiensis toxin produced by the insect resistant GMC. According to several
theoretical models, plants that contain two dissimilar Bt toxins possess the potential to delay
the development of resistance to the plant toxins in the insects (Yan et al. 2015). In spite of the
fact that majority of the Bt toxins are reported to be safe for human beings, several Bt toxins
can turn to harmful toxins when they get chemically combined with chemicals that are found n
GE plants. Hence Bt toxins do bear a potential to adversely affect the digestive system of
Human beings (Wolfenbarger and Phife 2013).
Theory against the negative effect of GMC
RNAi as Anti-Insect Strategy

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One of the most promising approaches in crop protection is RNAi that targets essential
genes in insects as well as other pests. RNA interfaces can be defined as the gene regulatory
process that plays a vital role in maintaining and regulating host defences against the invading
viruses. The dsRNA strategy targets insect genes that can potentially provide protection to
crops without the use of chemical pesticides along with offering additional advantages that
include the creation of no foreign protein and the number of target genes is nearly unlimited
(Tabashnik, Brévault and Carrière 2013). Thus the RNAi Anti-insect strategy can be defined as a
advantage of GMC since helps the farmers to get rid of specific insects or virus that are highly
dangerous for the crops.
Plants Expressing Multiple Toxins
As been discussed earlier, multiple toxins are induced in plants in order to prevent or
delay the development of resistance power within the insects. Thus it can be identified as
another advantageous approach of GMC. The mentioned technology, which is popularly known
as Bacillus thuringiensis or Bt technology can be applied on the surface of the plants in order to
provide temporary protection or is genetically engineered to produce their own Bt crystal
protein (Kuiper et al. 2012). These Bt crystal proteins are highly dangerous for the pests. In
recent years the usage of BT crops has got increased to a great extent due to advantages
provided by it on the basis of crop protection and lower production costs. Initially, a major
disadvantage of the Bt crop was the eventual resistance of the insects. However, with the
multiple toxin technologies, the development of resistance of the insect to the Bt crystal toxins
can be prevented to a great level.

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Figure 1: Usefulness of GM crops
Source (Timmons et al. 2015)
Resistance to horizontal gene transfer
Horizontal Gene Transfer (HGT) can be defined as a stable transfer of genetic material from one
organism to another without human intervention and without reproduction. HGT involves the
transmission of genes on viruses or mobile genetic elements. In spite of the fact that HGT was a
matter of concern due to the spread of antibiotic resistance among pathogenic bacteria, the
frequency of HGT from plants to other eukaryotes or prokaryotes has been found to be

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extremely low (Zhang et al. 2017). The frequency of HGT to the virus is restricted by stringent
selection pressure.
Conclusion
From the above discussion, it can be concluded that the usage of the insect-resistant
genetically modified crop is safe for the environment as well as for biodiversity. As been
discussed, the usage of insect resistant crop has highly reduced the usage of insecticides,
pesticides and herbicides that imposes high negative impact on the biodiversity. Moreover, the
mentioned technology has reduced soil erosion with the help of conservation tillage. The aim of
the review was to find out whether usage of GMC is safe for the ecosystem or not. Several
advantages and disadvantages of the usage of insect resistant GMCs have been discussed in this
research. However, in this research, the impact of GMC on the digestive system of the human
being has not been discussed. Hence there is a scope of future research on the above
mentioned factor.

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Barrows, G., Sexton, S. and Zilberman, D., 2014. Agricultural biotechnology: the promise and
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Benbrook, C.M., 2012. Impacts of genetically engineered crops on pesticide use in the US--the
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Han, S.M.a, Lee, B.b,Won, O.J.a, Hwang, K.S.a, Suh, S.J.a, Kim, C.G., Park, K.W. 2015 ‘Gene flow
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Klümper, W. and Qaim, M., 2014. A meta-analysis of the impacts of genetically modified
crops. PloS one, 9(11), p.e111629.

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Kuiper, H.A., Kleter, G.A., Noteborn, H.P. and Kok, E.J., 2001. Assessment of the food safety
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