Nervous System: Structure, Function, and Disorders

This document provides an overview of the nervous system, including its structure, function, and disorders. It discusses the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS), their components, and their roles in sensory and motor functions. The document also covers the symptoms and treatment of Parkinson's disease. References to relevant studies are included.

Nervous system

Contents
AC 1.1 AND 1.2..........................................................................................................................................3
C 2.1 AND 2.2.............................................................................................................................................5
AC 3.1 AND 3.2..........................................................................................................................................6
Symptoms................................................................................................................................................6
REFERENCES............................................................................................................................................8

AC 1.1 AND 1.2
1. The two major levels of Nervous systems existing in the body are:
Central Nervous System
This system of nervous is consisting of the spinal cord and the brain. The brain is regarded as
body’s main controller system. The CNS is mainly responsible for integration and processing of
sensory information. After synthesizing sensory input for computing a proper motor response, or
output (Wu and et.al., 2020).
Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system is consisting of large system of nerves that are connected with
brain to the brain and spinal cord. It is formed of sensory receptors, that is processing
developments in internal and external stimuli and responsible for making communications to
CNS. The PNS can be further subdivided into the autonomic nervous system and the somatic
nervous system.
2. Different parts of Central Nervous system are discussed as follows:
Brain
The brain is located in cranial cavity and consists of the cerebrum and cerebellum. It is
composed of nerves system that is further responsible for coordinating sensory and motor
systems in the body. The cerebrum, or the top portion for the brain, is the seat of higher-level
thought. In the brain there are two hemispheres, for each responsible in controlling other side of
body. There are four separate lobes in which the hemispheres are divided:
the frontal lobe, controlling specialized motor control, learning, planning, and speech;
the parietal lobe, controlling somatic or voluntary sensory functions;
the occipital lobe, controlling vision;
the temporal lobe, controlling hearing and some other speech functions.

The location of Cerebrellum is beneath or in the backside of cerebrum, it governs balance and
motor movements of fine nature. The main function is establishing coordination throughout the
body (Asadi-Pooya and Simani, 2020).
Brain Stem
The brain stem and its connection is settled underside of the body. The varjiosu parts included
here are midbrain, pons, and medulla. The midbrain is located between the hindbrain and the
forebrain responsible for locating motor function and allows motor and sensory information to to
travel through brain and rest of the body. The pons are housing control of systems responsible
for respiration and inhibitory functions. The medulla is also helpful in regulating respiration, and
also the cardiovascular and digestive functioning.
Spinal Cord
The spinal cord in the body is responsible for connecting the nervous system especially the PNS
one, to different parts in the body. Spinal nerves develop from the spinal cord and then regulate
functions of rest of the parts in the body. The receptors through spinal cord and spinal nerves to
the brain are called Impulses, from where these nerves generate information and nerves for the
rest of the parts in the body. This data is then sent back through the spinal cord to muscles and
glands for motor output (Allen and Lyons, 2018).
3. Different parts of the Nervous system involved in this function are discussed as follows:
The forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain, and spinal cord are part of the central nervous system (CNS),
that is the one part of the two great parts of the nervous system as a whole. In the brain itself
other parts are skull, while the spinal cord, which is about 17 inches (43 cm) long, which has
protection of the vertebral column.
For the human brain itself, the other great division is called peripheral nervous system (PNS),
that is formed of nerves and small concentrations of gray matter, naming ganglia, this term is
specifically used to describe the structure of PNS. In nutshell, nervous system can be regarded as
vast and extensive computing device formed from the networking style of grey matter connected
regions interconnected by white matter tracts.

The brain sends messages via the spinal cord to peripheral nerves throughout the body that serve
to control the muscles and internal organs. The somatic nervous system is made up of neurons
connecting the CNS with the parts of the body that interact with the outside world. Somatic
nerves in the cervical region are related to the neck and arms; those in the thoracic region serve
the chest; and those in the lumbar and sacral regions interact with the legs.
The autonomic nervous system is made of neurons connecting the CNS with internal organs. It is
divided into two parts. The sympathetic nervous system mobilizes energy and resources during
times of stress and arousal, while the parasympathetic nervous system conserves energy and
resources during relaxed states, including sleep.
C 2.1 AND 2.2
4. A nerve is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of axons (the projections of neurons) in the
peripheral nervous system (PNS). A nerve provides a structured pathway that supports
the electrochemical nerve impulses transmitted along each of the axons.
In the central nervous system, the analogous structures are known as tracts. Neurons are
sometimes referred to as nerve cells, although this term is misleading since many neurons do
not occupy nerves, and nerves also include non-neuronal support cells (glial cells) that
contribute to the health of enclosed neurons.
Each nerve contains many axons that are sometimes referred to as fibers. Within a nerve,
each axon is surrounded by a layer of connective tissue called the endoneurium. The axons
are bundled together into groups called fascicles. Each fascicle is wrapped in a layer of
connective tissue called the perineurium.
Finally, the entire nerve is wrapped in a layer of connective tissue called the epineurium. See
the following illustrations of these structures.

5. The form of the action electric-potential in nerve membranes in the nerve cell-membranes
are first described, it is, in essence, a nerve impulse and can be formed by virtue of
periodic and ruled changes of non-uniform distribution of the sodium and potassium ions
in the inner and surface of nerve cell-membranes. The nerve impulse can be also
transported along the nerve fiber membranes under action of periodic works of sodium
pump and potassium pump arising from the bio-energy released from the hydrolyses
reaction of ATP molecules, which is transported by Pam’s split on along the protein
molecules. The experiments verified that there is not the nerve impulse, or the action
electric- potential without the works of sodium pump and potassium pump, or the
bioenergy. We investigated further the properties of transport of the nerve impulse along
the nerve Ferber membranes (Sun and Guan, 2020).
AC 3.1 AND 3.2
6. Parkinson's disease is a progressive nervous system disorder that affects movement.
Symptoms start gradually, sometimes starting with a barely noticeable tremor in just one
hand. Tremors are common, but the disorder also commonly causes stiffness or slowing
of movement.
In the early stages of Parkinson's disease, your face may show little or no expression. Your arms
may not swing when you walk. Your speech may become soft or slurred. Parkinson's disease
symptoms worsen as your condition progresses over time.
Although Parkinson's disease can't be cured, medications might significantly improve your
symptoms. Occasionally, your doctor may suggest surgery to regulate certain regions of your
brain and improve your symptoms.
Symptoms
Parkinson's disease signs and symptoms can be different for everyone. Early signs may be mild
and go unnoticed. Symptoms often begin on one side of your body and usually remain worse on
that side, even after symptoms begin to affect both sides.

Parkinson's signs and symptoms may include:
 Tremor. A tremor, or shaking, usually begins in a limb, often your hand or fingers. You
may rub your thumb and forefinger back and forth, known as a pill-rolling tremor. Your
hand may tremble when it's at rest.
 Slowed movement (bradykinesia). Over time, Parkinson's disease may slow your
movement, making simple tasks difficult and time-consuming. Your steps may become
shorter when you walk. It may be difficult to get out of a chair. You may drag your feet as
you try to walk.
 Rigid muscles. Muscle stiffness may occur in any part of your body. The stiff muscles can
be painful and limit your range of motion.
 Impaired posture and balance. Your posture may become stooped, or you may have
balance problems as a result of Parkinson's disease.
 Loss of automatic movements. You may have a decreased ability to perform unconscious
movements, including blinking, smiling or swinging your arms when you walk.
 Speech changes. You may speak softly, quickly, slur or hesitate before talking. Your
speech may be more of a monotone rather than have the usual inflections.
 Writing changes. It may become hard to write, and your writing may appear small.

REFERENCES
Wu, Y. and et.al., 2020. Nervous system involvement after infection with COVID-19 and other
coronaviruses. Brain, behavior, and immunity. 87. pp.18-22.
Asadi-Pooya, A. A. and Simani, L., 2020. Central nervous system manifestations of COVID-19:
a systematic review. Journal of the neurological sciences. p.116832.
Allen, N. J. and Lyons, D. A., 2018. Glia as architects of central nervous system formation and
function. Science. 362(6411). pp.181-185.
Sun, T. and Guan, J., 2020. Novel coronavirus and the central nervous system. European journal
of neurology. 27(9). pp.e52-e52.