(Solved) Pg Dip Nursing Applicants

Life Sciences Work
Book
(To accompany APL portfolio for
Pg Dip nursing programmes)
Name ............................................
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Work book on Body Systems
The aim of this workbook is to enable our Pg Dip nursing applicants,
who have been offered a place on the programme and who have not studied
a health/science related degree before, to develop and enhance their
knowledge of the structures and systems of the body. It is essential to have a
good understanding of the anatomy and physiology of the body prior to
commencing your programme of study as one of your modules will build upon
this knowledge. The completed workbook must be submitted with your APL
portfolio as evidence that you have acquired this knowledge.You may use any
resources you wish to help you with its completion and at the back of this
work book you will find a recommended reading list.
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Contents
Body System Page
Body Compartments, Cells and Homeostasis 4-7
The Skin (Integumentary System), Wound Healing and
Temperature Regulation
7-10
The Musculo Skeletal System 11-13
The Heart 14-15
Blood and Blood Vessels 16-17
Respiratory System 18-20
Renal System, Fluid and Electrolytes 21-24
Gastrointestinal Tract 24-27
The Nervous System 28-30
The Endocrine System 31-32
The Reproductive System 32-33
Learning Resources 34
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Body Compartments, Cells and Homeostasis
1) Define the following terms:-
Cell
Cells are defined as the most fundamental and smallest unit of the
living organisms which is responsible for performing all functions of body.
Organ
An organ is defined as the tissue or a differentiated structural unit of body
which performs specific function. For instance heart is a organ which performs
the function of pumping of blood.
System
A system is defined as the group or integration of different organs to
perform a specific task or function. For instance pharynx, nose, trachea,
lungs, bronchi and larynx collectively forms the respiratory system for
breathing purpose.
Body compartments
2) Identify the location of the following organs in the body cavities: -
Spinal cord .........................................., Dorsal cavity
lungs.................................................. Thoracic cavity
kidneys......................................, Abdominal cavity
heart.................................................., Thoracic cavity
liver ..........................................., Abdominal cavity
stomach............................................. Abdominal cavity
Cells
3) Insert the appropriate words in the blank space against the correct
description below:-
(a) Ribosomes (b) Mitochondria (c) nucleus (d) Golgi apparatus (e)
Centrioles
i Mitochondria is where production of energy in the form of ATP occurs
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ii Centrioles are found near the nucleus and are involved in cell division
iii Ribosomes is an intracellular factory that manufactures protein
iv Golgi apparatus is the processing and packaging station for the protein
from the endoplasmic reticulum.
v Nucleus is essential for all cellular activities and contains genetic materials
4) Insert the following appropriate words in the blank space against
the correct description below:-
(a) osmosis, (b) active transport, (c) pinocytosis, (d) simple diffusion
(e) lysosomes
i Osmosis is the movement of water through a semi permeable membrane
from a region of low solute concentration to one of higher solute
concentration.
ii Simple diffusion is the movement of solutes/gas through a semi
permeable membrane from a region of higher solute/gas concentration to a
region of lower solute/gas concentration.
iii Pinocytosis is a mechanism by which cell membrane indents and actually
engulf the substance to be absorbed into the cell
iv Active transport requires energy derived from cellular chemical reactions
to move molecules or ions against their concentration gradient
v Lysosomes contains digestive enzymes which digest bacteria and cellular
debris
5) Which word fully describes the cell structure; please enter your
response in the spaces provided under each heading?
Cell structure Location Function
Plasma membrane
Forms the external
boundary of cells
Serves as a selectively
permeable membrane
which regulate material
to and from the cell
Lysosome
Found in the cytoplasm Contains digestive
enzymes
Mitochondria
Scattered throughout
the cells
Control release of energy
from food and forms ATP
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Ribosomes Found in all cells Manufactures protein
Cytosol
Found in the cytoplasm Contains ribosomes and
is involved in protein
synthesis
6) Describe the structure of the cell membrane
Cell membrane is made up of lipids and proteins. Lipids such as cholestrol,
phospholipids and glycolipids provide flexibility while peripheral and integral
proteins maintain the chemical climate of cell and helps in molecular transfer.
7) Explain the function of the cell membrane
Cell membrane prevents toxic substances from entering into the cell. The cell
membrane channels and receptors allows selective molecules like nutrients,
metabolic products and waste material from entering into the cell. It acts as a
separation between intracellular and extracellular components. Thus it
controls the particle movement and physical integrity of the cell. It helps in
maintaining the shape of cell and regulate its growth by balance of exocytosis
and endocytosis.
8) Explain briefly what occurs during osmosis
During osmosis water molecules are tends to move from both sides so that
concentration can be balanced. However since pure water has high
concentration than sugar solution, net molecular transfer occurs through
concentration gradient. Gradually water level on lower concentration side
increases and when concentration on both sides become same, equilibrium
occurs.
9) Explain how diffusion across the cell membrane occurs
The selective substances can move across cell membrane through passive
mechanism called diffusion. The small molecules passes through lipid bilayer
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of cell membrane. The molecules which are not able to diffuse through
membrane can pass through facilitated diffusion which is accomplished by the
protein molecules which are embedded in the cell membrane.
Homeostasis
10) What are ‘receptors’?
Receptors are defined as the cellular structures which are used for detection
of external stimuli and transfer it to sensory nerves so that suitable response
can be given by the body.
11) What are the receptors that detect body temperature called?
The sensory receptors which detects the body temperature are known as the
thermoreceptors.
12) The ‘pathway’ that conveys messages towards the control centre is
known as the Afferent pathway.
13) The ‘pathway’ that conveys messages away from the control centre is
known as the Efferent pathway.
14) What are ‘effectors’?
Effector is defined as the cell structure which provide response against stimuli
and produces body changes so that homeostasis can be restored and body
functions are performed in routine or normal pattern.
.
15) The 2 most important systems involved in regulation and the
maintenance of homeostasis are:-
I Endocrine system
ii Nervous system
16) Explain how the body strives to maintain homeostasis.
In order to maintain homeostasis body shows appropriate response to
the external stimulus by accomplishing changes or adjustment to internal
body functions or features.
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The Skin (Integumentary System), Wound Healing and
Temperaturee Regulation
The Skin
1) Using the key choices, select the correct term with the definition given.
(nb S stands for stratum)
(a) S. basale (e) Hypodermis
(b) S. corneum (f) Papillary layer
(c) S. granulosum (g)Epidermis (whole)
(d) S. lucidum (h)Dermis (whole)
Choice Description
Stratum lucidum Layer of cells present only in thick skin
Stratum corneum Layer containing all dead cells
Stratum corneum Layer that sloughs off
Dermis (whole) Contains the blood vessels
Stratum basale Epidermal layer undergoing mitosis (cell division)
Stratum corneum Cells with most keratin in them
Epidermis (whole) Outer layer of skin
Hypodermis Deeper layer of skin
Epidermis (whole) Layer where accessory structures are found
Stratum basale Epidermal layer where most melanocytes are
found
Stratum lucidum Layer that produces lipid rich secretion
Stratum corneum Epidermal layer containing the oldest cells
Hypodermis Largely adipose tissue and anchors skin to
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underlying tissue
2) Name the 5 layers of the epidermis starting with the innermost
layer
 Stratum basale (Innermost layer )
 Stratum spinosum
 Stratum granulosum
 Stratum lucidum
 Stratum corneum (Outermost layer)
3) For the protective functions of skin, match the term given with the
definition of the role each part plays in providing protection. Choose an
answer from the following:
(a) Melanin, (b) Sweat, (c) Normal flora, (d) Skin, (e) Macrophages, (f)
Lipids, (g) Langerhans cells, (h)Keratin
Answer Description
Skin Involved in the sensation of touch
Macrophages Resist invasion by organisms by preventing harmful
bacteria from colonising
Normal flora Prevent some evaporation on skin, protects hair and
skin from drying out, antibacterial due to low pH
Melanin Protects from UV light
Sweat Increases heat loss
Lipids Forms a protective barrier and protects underlying
tissues
Langerhans
cells
Phagocytose bacteria and viruses
Keratin A tough fibrous protein
4) What is an exocrine gland?
The glands which secretes and produces the substances onto an epithelial
structure by means of duct are known as exocrine glands. It includes sweat
glands, salivary and mucous glands etc.
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5) List some of the structures found in the dermis
 Nerve endings
 Sweat glands
 Sebaceous or oil glands
 Blood vessels
 Hair follicles
6) List the cells found in the epidermis and briefly describe their
function
 Melanocytes: It is responsible for melanin production which gives
protection from UV radiations.
 Kerintocytes: Reduces fricksion and gives protection.
 Langerhans cell: Provide protection to micros
 Merkel cells: These cells acts as sensory receptors
Wound healing
7) If the epidermis is damaged during injury, which layer of the
epidermis enables new cells to grow?
Stratum basale
8) Name the cells found in the skin that protect the skin from pathogenic
organisms
 Keratinocyte cells
 Langerhans cells
 Dermal dendritic cells
9)
State what happens during each stage of wound healing.
i) Inflammation
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In this phase homeostasis begins and clot is formed. When homeostasis is
achieved wound healing is promoted and infection is stave off.
ii) Regeneration
In the second stage new and healthy tissues are grown and damaged
mesenchymal cells are transformed into fibroblasts so that cells can move
around influenced area.
iii) Maturation
This last stage of healing is initiated when the wound is closed up. In this
phase non-functional fibroblasts are replaced by the functional ones and
tensile strength of dermal tissues is enhanced.
Homeostatic control of temperature
10) Using the key choices, select the terms that match the following
descriptions pertaining to body temperature regulation.
Key choices
(a)Hypothermia (b) Hyperthermia (c) Heat (d) Sensory (afferent
pathway) (e) Thermoreceptors(f) Blood (g) Hypothalamus
(h)Sweating (i) Shivering (j) Temperature control centre
(k) Motor (efferent pathway) (l) Vasoconstriction (m) Vasodilation
Answer Description
Heat Produced as a result of cell metabolism
Hypothalamus Thermoregulatory centre
Blood Medium that distributes heat to all the tissues and
carries it to the skin
Temperature control
centre
Site of the body’s temperature control centre
Sensory (afferent
pathway)
Nerves that carry information about temperature to the
hypothalamus (control centre)
Motor (efferent pathway) Nerves convey impulses away from the control centre
and activate the effectors
Sweating Means of liberating excess body heat
Hypothermia Extremely low body temperature
Hyperthermia Extremely high body temperature
Thermoreceptors Receptors that detect temperature
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Shivering Generates heat when temperature falls too low
Vasodilation Increases blood flow to the skin
Vasoconstriction Reduces blood flow to the skin
The Musculo Skeletal System
1) How many bones does the adult human body have?
Adult humans have 206 bones.
2) Name 3 substances that bone contains when fully developed
 Collagen
 Hydroxyapatite
 Calcium
3) Name, and give examples of the four main types (shapes) of
bone Flat bones: It consist of a spongy bone between two parallel compact
bones. Coxal bones, cranial bones, scapula and ribs are example of
flat bones.
 Long bones : The length of these bones is greater than their width and
their diaphysis is curved. Example: Fibula, Femur and Humerus.
 Short bones: These are compact, cubical and spongy bones.
Examples: Tarsals and Carpals.
 Irregular bones: The examples of these odd shaped bones includes
facial bones, vertebrae and calcaneus.
4) State the main function of a:
. i) ligament
Ligaments provides connection between bones so that joints can be formed.
ii) tendon
They provide tensile forces between bones and muscles. They also provides
compressive forces around bones.
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5) List the main functions of the skeleton
 Supporting
 Movement
 Mineral storage
 Endocrine regulation
 Protection
 Production of blood cells
6) What are the two types of bone tissue?
I) Compact
ii) Spongy
7) What are the functions of:
i) Osteoblasts
These are responsible for the formation and remodelling of bones.
ii) Osteoclasts
It performs the functions such as resorbing or break down of bone, bone
matrix. It removes the bone tissues by dissolving collagen and removing
mineral matrix.
8) Name the 5 main regions of the vertebral column and state
how many vertebrae there are in each region
Region of Vertebral column Number of
vertebrae
Cervical 7
Thoracic 12
Lumbar 5
Sacral 5
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Coccygeal 3 to 5
Joints, Tendons and Ligaments
9) Name the three types of joint
 Cartilaginous joints (Partially moveable)
 Fibrous or immovable joints
 Freely movable or synovial joints
10) Give two examples of where in the body each of the three
types of joint can be found
Fibrous joints: Example of this types of joints are the radioulnar joint,
tibiofibular joint and joints which held teeth with bony sockets.
Cartilaginous joints: These are present in body where cartilage connection
is present between articulating bones. The examples of this type of joints is
joints between vertebrae in spine and manubriosternal joint between sternum
and manubrium.
Synovial joints: These joints are surrounded by collagenous structure or
synovial capsule and are completely movable. Its examples includes hinged
joints and pivot joints.
11) What type of joint allows most movement?
synovial joints (Ball and socket joints of synovial type of joint )
12) What type of joint does not allow movement?
Fibrous joints
13) What attaches muscle to bone?
Tendons
14) Outline the function(s) of ‘tendons’
 Joins muscles and bones thus helps in movement
 Helps in withstanding high stress which is generated by contraction
of muscles.
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15) Outline the function(s) of ‘ligaments’
 Ligaments provides connection between bones.
 Musculoskeletal biomechanics
 Prevents injuries or dislocation of joints and spares damage to bones.
 Helps body posture by proprioception
Muscles
16) Complete the following table, identifying the type of muscle
Type of muscle Description
Voluntary muscle Is under the control of the will
(voluntary)
Smooth muscles Moves substances such as food
through the gastrointestinal tract
Skeletal muscles Enables movement and ability to hold
the body upright
Cardiac muscles Is activated by a specialised
conducting system in the heart
Smooth muscles Causes blood vessels to constrict
Cardiac muscles Has short branching fibres
Smooth muscles
and cardiac
muscle
2 types of muscle not under the control
of the will (involuntary)
17) The 3 types of muscle tissues exhibit certain similarities and
differences. Tick the appropriate one in the following table to
indicate the specific characteristic of each muscle type
Skeletal Cardiac Smooth
Voluntary
controlled √
Involuntary
Controlled
√ √
Single nucleus
in each cell
√ √
Found attached
to bone
√
Allows the
movement of
your eyeball
√
Found in walls √
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of stomach
uterus and
arteries
Contain
cylindrical cells
with branching
end
√
Concerned with
locomotion of
the body
√
The Heart
1) The site in the thoracic cavity that the heart occupies is called
mediastinum.
2) The structure that separates the right side of the heart from the left side is
called the septum.
3) Oxygenated blood found is found on which side of the heart?
Left side
4) Name the tiny muscle that anchors the chordae tendinae to the inner wall
of the heart papillary muscle.
5) What are Chordae Tendinae and what are their functions?
Chordae Tendinae is group of tendinous and hard strands which are present
in the heart. They play a key function of holding atrioventricular valves at
correct locations while heart is pumping.
6) Explain the reason why the atria has thinner muscle compared to that
of the ventricles
The atria has thinner muscles than that of ventricles because as compare to
atria blood is pumped from ventricles at very high pressure. Thus it has to do
more work and bear more pressure for which more thick muscles are
required.
7) Describe the function of the conducting system in the heart
Conducting system initiates the pulses and conduct them rapidly through
heart. It also provides a coordination with the cardiac contractions so that
cardiac cycle can be initiated normally.
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8) Explain why one chamber of the heart has a much thicker muscle wall
compared to other chambers and give a reason for this difference.
Atria pushes the blood into ventricles while ventricles are required to push
blood throughout the body. Due to this reason one chamber of heart has
much thicker muscle walls so that blood can be pumped to extremities without
any difficulties.
9) Describe the flow of blood through the heart starting from the right
atrium, ending with the left ventricle. (Name the chambers, valves and
blood vessels that enter and leave each chamber)
Right side heart:
The oxygen poor blood from body enters the right atrium through superior and
inferior vena cava. Through contraction this blood moves from right atrium to
right ventricle through tricuspid valve. When ventricle gets full valve is closed
and during contraction backward flow of blood is prevented into atria. When
ventricle contracts blood moves through pulmonary valve and artery to lungs
for oxygenation.
Left side heart:
The oxygen rich blood coming from lungs enters into left atrium through
pulmonary veins. Due to contraction blood leaves left atrium and enters into
left ventricle through mitral valve. When ventricle undergoes into contraction
blood is taken out from the heart through aortic valve and aorta to the body.
10) Name the 3 layers of the heart and explain each of their functions
Epicardium: This outermost layer provide lubrication and protection to the
heart.
Myocardium: This is the middle layer of heart and is responsible for pumping
blood as it contains cardiac tissues.
Endocardium: This outermost layer of heart prevents the sticking of blood
inside heart and forms blood clots.
11) Describe pulmonary circulation; where does it start and where does
it finish (name the blood vessels, heart chambers and heart valves)?
Pulmonary circulation starts in right ventricle and terminates in left atrium.
This circulation carries blood between lungs and heart. The oxygen poor
blood from body moved through right atrium and then right ventricle through
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tricuspid valve. From right ventricle blood travels through pulmonary valve and
arteries and enters into lungs. This circulation is known as pulmonary
circulation.
12) Name the blood vessel(s) that carry blood away from the left
ventricle
Aorta
13) Name the blood vessel(s) that carry blood away from the right
ventricle
Pulmonary artery
14) Name the blood vessel(s) that carry blood into the left atrium
Pulmonary veins
15) Name the blood vessel(s) that carry blood into the right atrium
Inferior vena cava and superior vena cava
16) Name the parts of the conducting system numbered 1-5 on the
diagram below
1 Sinotrial node (SAN)
2 Atrioventricular node (AVN)
3 HIS bundle
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4 Left and right bundle branch (LBB and RBB)
5 Purkinje fibres (PFS)
Blood and Blood Vessels
1) Match the description with the relevant term below:-
(a) Tunica externa (b) Tunica media (c) Tunica intima
I) Tunica intima single thin layer of endothelium
ii) Tunica media bulky middle coat, containing smooth muscle and
elastin
iii) Tunica externa anchors blood vessels to surrounding structures
iv) Tunica intima the innermost layer
v) Tunica externa also called the adventitia
vi) Tunica intima which is in contact with blood in the lumen
vii) Tunica externa a supporting and protecting coat
2)Define the term ‘vein’
Veins are defined as the blood vessels which are responsible for movement of
blood towards heart. Except ubilical and pulmonary veins all veins carries
deoxygenated blood towards heart.
3)Define the term ’artery’
Arteries are known as the blood vessels which carries blood away from heart.
Except umilical and pulmonary arteries all arteries carries oxygenated blood
from heart.
4)Define the term ‘ capillary’
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Capillaries are known as the smallest blood vessels which carries the blood
between venules and arterioles.
5) Artery walls have three layers; name these layers
 Tunica intima
 Tunica media
 Tunica externa
6) Vein walls have three layers; name these layers
 Tunica intima
 Tunica media
 Tunica externa
7) Insert the appropriate words/letter against the description below:-
(a) Cardiac output (b) Blood pressure (c) Korotkoff sounds (d)
pressure points (e) diastolic blood pressure (f) Systolic blood pressure
(g) pulse
I) Pulse an expansion and recoil of an artery following a heart beat
ii) Blood pressure pressure exerted by blood against the blood vessel
wall.
Iii) Systolic blood pressure maximum blood pressure following left
ventricular contraction
iv) Diastolic blood pressure minimum blood pressure following cardiac
relaxation.
v) Pressure points point at body surfaces where a pulse may be felt
vi) Korotkoff sounds the sounds heard over an artery when blood
pressure is determined by the auscultation.
Vii) Cardiac output one of the factors contributing to the maintenance of
blood pressure.
8) List the characteristics of blood
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 Blood forms 8% of total weight of body and is more thick than water.
 It consist of cells, plasma and fluids.
 It enables movement of substances throughout the body.
 It is essential for functionality of immune system and metabolism.
 It is made up of red blood cells (45%), white blood cells (0.7%),
platelets (<1%) and plasma (54.3%).
9) Name the two main components in whole blood and the
percentage of each one
 Plasma (55%)
 Red blood cells (45%)
10) List the functions of a red blood cell.
 These cells contain hemoglobin which carries oxygen. Thus RBC
receives oxygen from lungs and delivers it to other tissues. It also
collects carbon dioxide from various tissues and deliver it to lungs.
 It also helps in blood clotting.
11) What is the blood volume of an average size adult?
The blood volume of an adult must be one eleventh of the weight of body and
it is approximately in the range 4.7 to 5 liters.
12) List the main blood groups.
 A
 B
 AB
 O
13) Which cells are more numerous in the blood?
Red blood cells
14) What is/are the general function(s) of white blood cells?
 Preventing and eliminating the bacterial growth.
 Destruction of allergens
 Enhancing tissue blood flow
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15) What is/are the general function(s) of red blood cells?
 Transportation of oxygen to body.
 Transportation of carbon dioxide to lungs.
 Blood clotting
16) Describe the formation, structure, shape and life span of a red blood
cell
RBCs have biconcave disk shape with flattened centre and are bright red in
colour. Their formation is regulated by erythropoietin hormone which is
produced by kidneys. RBCs are generated as immature cells in bone marrow
and then after 7 days they are released in blood. These cells does not have
nucleus and can live for up to 120 days. It consist of a protein called
haemoglobin which gives blood red colour.
Respiratory System
1) In the correct order, list the structures that air passes through before it
reaches the lungs.
 Nostrils
 Pharynx
 Larynx
 Trachea
 Bronchi
 Lungs
2) List the structures that help to change the characteristic of
inspired air before it reaches the lungs.
 Nostrils
 Pharynx
 Trachea
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3) Explain the changes that occur to the characteristics of inspired
air before it enters the lungs
As soon as air is inspired through nostrils it is filtered through mucus
and hairs present in the nasal cavity. Along with filtration its temperature is
also changed according to the temperature of body. After this the air is
passed through pharynx where germs removal action is performed before it is
passed further to trachea. In trachea again mucus is used to filter the air
before it enters into lungs through bronchi.
4) List the structures that air passes through as it passes from the
trachea to the alveoli
Nasal cavity
pharynx
larynx
trachea
bronchi
bronchioles
5) Where are the cilia found in the respiratory tract?
Cilia is present in windpipe or the lining of trachea.
6) Explain the functions of the:
(i) Cillia
It moves the liquid past the surface of a cell
(ii) Goblet cells
Its function is to secrete mucus in order to protect the mucous membrane.
(iii) Mucus
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It protects the epithelial cells in the respiratory, urogenital, auditory systems
and visual systems.
7) What is an alveolus?
Alveolus is an important part of a human respiratory system and its
function is to exchange the oxygen and co2 molecules to and from
bloodstream.
8) What is the ‘respiratory membrane’?
It is a membrane that separates the air within the alveoli from the blood within
the pulmonary capillaries
9) How many cells thick are capillary walls?
One cell thick
10)What type of cells form the walls of the capillary?
The capillary walls are made up of single layered endothelial cells.
11)What type of cells form the walls of the alveolus?
Squamous alveolar cells
12)How many cells thick are alveoli walls?
One cell thick
13)Explain the changes that occur to the chest cavity during
i) inspiration
During inspiration diaphragm and external intercostal muscle contract which
causes the rib cage to expand and move outward and expanding lung
volume.
ii) Expiration
During expiration or exhale a diaphragm relaxes or move inward into the
chest cavity and reduces the space of chest cavity.
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14)Explain the mechanism which causes air to move in and out of the
lungs (chest movement)
When humans inhales the air a volume of lungs expands which results in the
contraction of diaphragm and intercostal muscles which results in the
expansion of thoracic cavity. During exhalation the diaphragm relaxes and
results in lowering the rib cage and decrease in thoracic volume.
15)Describe the location and functions of the pleural membrane.
Pleural membrane helps in easy movement of lungs within body cavity so that
minimum friction occurs with other organs. The membrane encloses a fluid
filled space which surrounds lungs.
16)What is the function of pulmonary fluid?
It reduces the surface tension at liquid or air interface in lungs.
17)Name the layers of the pleural membrane and state where each
layer is situated
Visceral pleura: It is situated as a covering outside the lungs
Parietal pleura: This is located as the inside lining of chest wall
18)Explain how the pleural membrane enables the lungs to expand
as the thoracic cavity expands
Pleural membrane layers have space between them which consist of fluid.
Intrapleural pressure helps lungs to stuck with chest walls. The pleural fluid
prevents trauma and surface tension so that position of lungs is maintained
against thoracic wall. This fluid also enlarges lungs when thoracic wall
undergoes into expansion during ventilation. It helps lungs to fill with air.
19)Explain how gases move across the respiratory membrane
The pulmonary ventilation will be providing air for the gas exchange
process. At the respiratory membrane the alveolar and capillary walls
meet and gases moving across. This is moment of oxygen moving into
blood and CO2 moving out of blood across respiratory membrane to
lungs.
20)Explain how oxygen is transported in the blood stream (give
percentages)
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The protein present into the red blood cell will be carrying oxygen to cell and
the carbon dioxide to lungs which is done through haemoglobin. All the
oxygen is transmitted through blood but oxygen is not soluble into liquids.
Only small amount of oxygen is dissolved into blood and this is only
transmitted into bloodstream which is only 1.5% of total amount. Commonly
about 98.5% oxygen molecules are carried from lungs to body tissue by
transport system.
21)Explain the thee ways by which carbon dioxide is transported in
the blood stream (give percentages)
 Direct dissolution into blood (5-7% CO2 can dissolve in plasma)
 Binding: Around 10% carbon dioxide can bind to plasma or hemoglobin
after entering red blood cells.
 Transportation as bicarbonate ion: 85% of CO2 is carried through
bicarbonate buffer system.
22) Describe diffusion
Diffusion is defined as the flow of ions or substances from high
concentration region to low concentration. This is the movement of ions
and molecule termed to as new moment or net diffusion. Like oxygen is
diffused from cell membranes as there is higher concentration of oxygen
outside cell.
23) Explain why diffusion is important for the movement of gases
Diffusion is vital for the gases because it helps molecules to enter across
cells and thus it assist in cell functionality. For instance waste product removal
and movement of digest food is not possible without mechanism of diffusion.
All digested food molecules like amino acids moves down the concentration
gradient from intestine to bloodstream.
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The Renal System, Fluid and Electrolytes
1) Label the diagram below.
27

2) List the functions of the renal system
The urinary or renal system is responsible for production, storage and
elimination of the fluid waste called urine which is excreted by the kidneys. It
also balances the amount of salts and other substances in blood and secretes
a hormone responsible for formation of red blood cells.
3) List the three processes by which urine is formed
 Glomercular filtration
 Reabsorption
 Secretion
4) Describe what occurs during each of the three process of urine
formation
The urine is formed in following three processes:
Filtration: In this process water and other solute substances are filtered by
glomerulus. The proteins and blood cells are prevented through filtration
membrane so that they remain in bloodstream.
Reabsorption: The filtrate contains waste as well as nutrients and essential
ions, proteins and acids. In this step vital nutrients are reabsorbed.
Secretion: The waste and hydrogen ions which were not absorbed during
second stage enters into renal tubule. The secreted ions and remaining filtrate
combines and forms urine.
5) List the contents of urine
Water (95%), urea, sodium, potassium, chloride, dissolved ions, creatinine
and several other organic and inorganic compounds
6) List the parts of a nephron
Nephron has two parts namely renal corpuscle and renal tubule
7) What helps urine flow down the ureters?
The muscles in ureters regularly relax and tight which helps urine to flow in
downward direction.
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8) Name the blood vessels that take blood to and away from the
glomerulus
The afferent arteriole carries the blood to glomerulus and efferent arteriole
carries blood away from glomerulus.
9) What is the function of the bladder?
Urinary bladder stores the urine coming from kidneys through ureter and
allows infrequent and controlled urination.
10)List the structures urine flows through after it leaves the
collecting duct until it leaves the body
 Collecting duct
 Renal pelvis
 Ureter
 Bladder
 Urethra
 Exterior to body
11)Describe six different functions of the kidney
The kidney performs following functions:
 Maintain fluid balance
 Regulation and filtration of minerals
 Filtration of waste material from food
 Production of hormones which helps in regulating blood pressure and
formation of red blood cell.
 Balances pH
 Regulation of ion concentration and osmolarity
Fluid Balance
1) State the 3 ways by which we acquire water
 Drinking
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 Respiration (In the form of moisture)
 Eating
2) How much should the average sized adult drink per day?
Average size adult men must drink 3.7 litres of fluid per day while women
must drink 2.7 litres daily.
3) How much water do we lose per day?
A healthy adult typicaly looses 2-3 litres of water daily.
4) State the 3 main ways fluid body fluid is lost (in health) and
state how much is lost by each way
 Urination (60%)
 Loss via lungs and skin (28%)
 Sweating (8%)
5) Explain what electrolytes are
Electrolytes are defined as the substances which becomes ions and conducts
electricity in solution. Electrolytes such as helps to regulate the osmotic
pressure and functionality of cells.
6) What are the 2 fluid compartments of the body?
 Intracellular fluid compartment (ICF)
 Extracellular fluid compartment (ECF)
7) Explain where each fluid compartment is located
Intracellular fluid compartment is located within cells while the extracellular
fluid compartment is located outside the cells. Both of these compartments
are separated by cell membranes.
8) What is a cation?
The positively charged ions are known as the cation. These ions are vital for
the regulation of body fluids.
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9) What is an anion?
A negatively charged ion is called anion which helps in fluid regulation.
10) List some of the cations and anions found in the body
 Cation: Calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium
 Anion: Chloride, phosphorus and bicarbonates
11) Which ion is involved in maintaining the ‘acid balance’ (pH)?
Hydrogen and bicarbonate ion balances the pH level.
12)What is the normal pH of blood?
The normal pH range of blood is between 7.35 to 7.45.
Gastro Intestinal tract
1) What is an enzyme?
Enzymes are known as the protein molecules which serves as catalyst and
helps in speeding up the specific chemical reactions in body without directly
being used in the process.
2) Name the enzyme in saliva that starts the breakdown of
carbohydrates.
Salivary amylase
3) Name the salivary glands and list their position in the mouth Parotid gland: It is wrapped around jawbone or lower jaw.
 Submandibular gland: Beneath lower jaw
 Sublingual gland: This gland is located anterior to submandibular
gland or inferior to tongue.
4) Name the constituents of saliva.
Water plus electrolytes (95%), enzymes, mucus, epithelial and white blood
cells and antimicrobial agents.
5) Define a sphincter
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It is defined as the circular muscle which regulate the constricts and relaxes
the natural body passage so that normal physiological functions can be
performed.
6) The Sphincter found between the stomach and the small intestine
is called:
Pyloric sphincter
7) Name the numbered structures in the diagram below:
1. Transverse colon
2. Ascending colon
3. Appendix
4. Rectum
5. Anus
6. Sigmoid colon
7. Descending colon
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8) What type of muscle contraction enables the movement of food
through the digestive tract?
A series of wave like muscle contraction called peristalsis enables food
movement through digestive tract.
9) Describe the following :-
(i) the length of the small intestine
6 meter or 20 feet
(ii) the different sections of the small intestine
Duodenum: It is the shortest part of small intestine and absorption is initiated
at this site. The protein breakdown takes place in this section.
Jejunum: This middle part of small intestine absorbs digestion products and
connects the duodenum to ileum.
Ileum: The last section is known as ileum which absorbs bile acid and vitamin
B12.
(iii) the functions of the small intestine.
Its main function is to absorb food and nutrients so that food can be digested.
10)Describe the following :-
(i) The length , position and different parts of the large
intestine
Length: 1.5 meters
Position: The last part of small intestine connects to caecum in the lower
abdomen, rest of colon is divided in to four parts the ascending colon travels
up the right side of abdomen and descending colon travels down the left
abdomen
Different parts: First is pouch called caecum, second is colon which has three
sections ascending, transverse and descending and last part is rectum.
(ii) The functions of the large intestine
Major function of large intestine is to absorb water and transmit the useless
waste material from the human body.
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11) Explain the chemical digestion of the following foodstuffs. Name the
enzymes, where they are released from and how they break down each
of the following:
(i) Protein
Two enzymes are release amylase and lipase. Once the protiens reaches to
the stomach Hcl acid and enzymes called proteases breaks it down into
smaller chains of amino acids.
(ii) Fats
Lipase enzyme is released in pancreas which breaks down the fat into fatty
acids and glycerol.
(iii) Carbohydrates
Salivary amylase is released in the mouth which breaks down carbohydrates
in glycosidic bonds between monomers.
13)Before each nutrient can be absorbed it is broken down into its
smallest component. What are the following absorbed as:
(i) Protein
Amino acids
(ii) Fats
fatty acids and glycerol
(iii) Carbohydrates?
Monosaccharides
14)Define the following terms :-
i) Ingestion
It may be defined as a consumption of a substance by a
person or by any other organism.
ii) Digestion
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It is a form of a catabolism which involves breaking down of
a food into smaller pieces with the help of enzymes which
are called catalysts.
iii) Absorption
It is the process by which the products of digestion are
absorbed by blood which is supplied to rest of human body.
iv) Excretion
It is the process of removal of wastes which are produced in a human body.
15)Explain the processes that occur during the act of defecation.
The defecation or the bowel movement is the act of eliminating semi-solid or
solid waste material (feces) from digestive tract. During the process of
defecation colon walls undergoes through peristaltic waves or muscular
contraction which moves the fecal material so that it can go to rectum through
digestive tract.
Nervous System
1) Draw and label a typical neurone
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2) Name the 2 parts that form the central nervous system?
 Brain
 Spinal cord
3) What are the functions of dendrites?
Dendrites receives the stimulation or the messages so that cells can become
active. They also integrate the synaptic inputs.
4) What are the functions of axons?
Axons conducts the electrical impulses and information away from the glands,
muscles and neuron's cell body.
5) Explain the function(s) of sensory neurones
Sensory neurons transmits the external stimuli from the external or the
organism's environment to the central nervous system by converting them into
internal stimuli.
6) Explain the function(s) of motor neurones
Motor neurons controls the movement of muscles and thus helps in
movement.
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7) What is a synapse?
The junction between two neurons is called synapse so that electrical and
chemical information can be exchanged between both the neurons.
8) What are (i) neuro transmitters? (ii) where are they released? and
(iii) what are their functions?
 Neurotransmitter are the chemicals which allows the transmission of
signals between neurons.
 It is released from synaptic vesicles in synapse.
 They interact with receptors and formulate a key and lock mechanism
for transferring messages from one neuron to other.
9) Name the two branches of the autonomic nervous system.
 Sympathetic division
 Parasympathetic division
10) What are the coverings of the brain and spinal cord collectively
known as.?
Collectively brain and spinal cord covering is called Meninges.
11)What does CSF stand for and where is it produced?
CSF stands for Cerebrospinal fluid and it is produced in the brain ventricles
and around the brain and spinal cord surface.
12)List the functions of CSF.
 Waste removal from cerebral metabolism
 Nutrient supply to nervous system
 Provides protection to spinal cord and brain
13)The outer part of the brain is the Cerebral cortex. This is subdivided
into 4 different lobes. These lobes have the same names as the
portion of the skull that covers that lobe. The 4 different lobes are
called:
I Frontal lobe
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ii Parietal lobe
iii Temporal lobe
iv Occipital lobe
14) The functions of each lobe are:
i. Frontal lobe: It receives information from other lobes and helps in
body movements.
ii Parietal lobe: This lobe processes tactile sensory information like
pain, pressure and touch.
iii Temporal lobe: It interprets sounds and languages and helps in
memory.
iv Occipital lobe: This lobe helps in interpreting visual information and
stimuli.
15) What is the function of the nervous system?
 To respond against different stimulus.
 Motor and sensory functions
 Communication and integration between different functional activities.
16)Describe the functional effects of the sympathetic nervous
system
The sympathetic nervous system helps in controlling the response of body in
emergency and stress situations so that body can perform effectively in such
situations. Thus it is related with flight and fight response. It increases blood
flow and accelerates heart rate and blood pressure.
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17)Describe the functional effects of the parasympathetic nervous
system
Parasympathetic nervous systems regulates and manages the homeostasis
during normal or the rest state of body. It regulates the digestion,sexual
arousal and slow downs heart rate and blood pressure after the activation of
sympathetic nervous system.
Endocrine System
1) Explain the difference between an endocrine and an exocrine gland
Endocrine Exocrine gland
 This gland will not be
discharging the secretion with
ducts this is the reason why
they are known as ductless
glands. These are also known
as ductless glands because
instead of secretion discharge
through duct they directly
secretes hormones into
 While on other hand they are
having duct for way of
discharging their secretion on
surface of body.
 They are all present on skin,
buccal cavity present on
salivary glands and on wall of
stomach as well.
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bloodstream
 These glands are located in
base of the brain, neck and
above kidneys.
 For examples- thyroid gland,
pituitary gland and adrenal
gland.
 For example gastric and
salivary gland
2) Give examples of some exocrine and endocrine glands.
Some of the examples of exocrine are as follows sweat and oil glands which
are present on skin, liver and salivary glands. However endocrine glands
include pituitary, thyroid and adrenal glands.
3) What is a hormone?
Hormone is member of class which is belonging to signalling molecules
produced by the glands which are present in multicellular organism
transporting through the circulatory system to the correct target organs.
4) Explain why hormones only influence specific cells and tissues of
the body
They are known as messenger which is secreted into the blood or any fluid
which is intended to affect only one single cell called as target cell. This will
be responding to hormone as it is bearing with receptor for that particular
hormone only. Hormone is generally intended to impact the limited number of
cell which is its target.
5) Fill in the names of the hormones produced by the following endocrine
glands and briefly outline their action
Gland Hormone Action
Posterior
Pituitary
1 Oxytocin
2 Antidiuretic
Oxytocin play important role in sexual
reproduction, social bonding, period after
childbirth and childbirth as well.
Antidiuretic is having 2 functions
Increasing amount of solute-free water for
reabsorbing the circulation from the filtrate
into the kidney.
The AVP restrict the arterioles which is
increasing the peripheral vascular
resistance.
Anterior
Pituitary
1 Growth hormone This is the most important hormone for the
development of human and other animals.
As will be stimulating growth, cell
regeneration and cell reproduction.
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2 Prolactin (PRL)
3 Follicle-
stimulating
hormone (FSH)
4 Luteinizing
hormone (LH)
5
Adrenocorticotropi
c hormone (ACTH)
6 Thyroid-
stimulating
hormone (TSH)
The role of PRL will be playing role of
enabling mammals to produce milk usually
like that of female.
FSH will be working for regulating
development, progress and growth of
pubertal maturation and both FSH and LH
working together into reproductive system.
LH working together into reproductive
system.
Both in male and female there is different
functions of role. In male this will
testosterone secretion and in females it will
secrete progesterone, ovulation and
maintaining of corpus luteum.
ACTH will be playing role in increasing
release of cortisol by the cortex and
production of adrenal gland. This will also
be related with circadian rhythm in many
organisms.
TSH will be stimulating thyroid gland in way
of producing thyroxine (T4) and the
triiodothyronine (T3) both will be stimulating
the metabolism of other tissues of body.
The 1Triiodothyronine This will be playing role in physiological
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Thyroid
Gland
(T3)
2 Thyroxine (T4)
3 Thyroid
stimulating
hormone (TSH)
process into human body like that of body
temperature, metabolism, growth and heart
rate as well.
T4 will help in secreting hormone into
bloodstream by thyroid gland this play vital
role in heart function, digestion,
maintenance of bone and brain
development as well.
This will be released by pituitary gland to
make both T3 and T4.
Parathyroid
Glands
1 Parathyroid
hormone
2 Calcitonin
This is very much important in remodelling
of bone and this will help in rebuilding and
resorbing bone tissue overtime
This act as reducing the blood calcium
(Ca2+) in opposing to the effect of
parathyroid hormone (PTH).
Adrenal
Medulla
1 epinephrine
(adrenaline)
2 norepinephrine
(noradrenaline)
This play role in fighting or flighting
response in way of increasing the blood
flow into muscle and output of heart with
blood sugar level as well.
The role will be mobilising the brain and the
body function.
Adrenal
Cortex
1
Mineralocorticoids
2 Glucocorticoids
This will be acting on kidney to reabsorb
the sodium and assorted reabsorption of
water with active secretion of protons via
proton.
The role will be of glucose metabolism,
synthesis in the adrenal cortex.
Pancreas 1 Glucagon This will help in insulin maintain the normal
blood glucose by working in opposite way
of insulin.
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2 Gastrin
This will assist into digestion by stimulating
certain cell into stomach to produce acid.
Reproductive System
1) Name the hormones released by the anterior pituitary that act on
the ovaries
 Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
 Luteinizing hormone
2) On which day of the menstrual cycle is the mature egg (ovum)
released?
On every 28th day of menstrual cycle ovum is released and moved to fallopian
tube.
3) Into what area is the ovulated cell released?
Peritoneal cavity
4) Describe the structure and explain the function of Fimbriae
Fimbriae tube is finger like projection present at the end of fallopian tubes.
Through these structures eggs travels to uterus. It is closest to ovaries and
does not touch it and is activated by hormones to accomplish its functions.
5) List the three layers of the uterus, starting with the outer layer.
(I) Perimetrium (Outer layer)
(ii) Myometrium
(iii) Endometrium (Inner layer)
6) Explain how the ovum moves along the fallopian tube
The fallopian tube helps ovum to move from ovary to uterus. In Ampulla of
fallopian tube egg fertilisation takes place and then fertilised egg is moved to
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uterus. The mucous membrane contains cilia which helps sperms and eggs to
move through fallopian tube.
7) Where does fertilization usually take place?
Fertilisation takes place in fallopian tube. This tube connects ovary to uterus.
8) On what days of the menstrual cycle can fertilisation occur?
Explain why it can only occur on these days
On around 14 days of menstrual cycle fertilisation can occur because the
average time from beginning of last menstrual period until ovulation is around
14.6 days. And days surrounding ovulation are the most fertile phase.
9) Which part of the uterus is broken down and lost during
menstruation?
During menstruation uterus lining breaks down.
10)Name the organ that delivers semen to the female reproductive
tract
Penis delivers the semen to female reproductive tract.
11)Name the site of sperm and testosterone production
Sperms and testosterone are produced at Seminiferous tubules which lies
within testes.
12)Name the external sac that houses the testes
Scrotum
13)Name the gland that surrounds the urethra at the base of the
bladder and produces a milky fluid
Prostate gland
14)Approximately how much fluid is released per ejaculation?
Two to five millimetres
15)Approximately how many sperm are there in each 1ml of
ejaculatory fluid?
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Approx 20 to 300 million sperm cells can be present in each 1ml of ejaculatory
fluid.
Learning Resources
Marieb, E.N. (2010) Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology
(10th Ed) Pearson, Benjamin Cummings San Francisco.
Tortora, G. & Derrickson, B. (2013) Essentials of Anatomy and
Physiology (9th Ed) John Wiley and sons, (Asia)
Thibodeau, G., Patton, K. (2013) The Human Body in Health and
Disease. (6th Ed) Mosby, Inc. USA.
Marieb, E.N., Hoehn, K. (2014) Human Anatomy and Physiology (9th
Ed) Pearson, Benjamin Cummings San Francisco.
Tortora G.J., Derrickson B (2012) Principles of Anatomy and
Physiology: Organisation, Support and Movement and Control Systems
of the Human Body (13th Ed) John Wiley
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