This document contains discussion questions related to various topics in pharmacology. It covers neurotransmitters, drug effects, and treatment options for different conditions.
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Running head: PHARMACOLOGY1 Title of the Paper Student Name Institutional Affiliation
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PHARMACOLOGY2 Autonomic Discussion Questions Name the neurotransmitter that is affected by benzodiazepines. Benzodiazepines are anxiolytics that also affect cognizance, emotional response, motor coordination, and consciousness. Benzodiazepines acts on the neurotransmitter, GABA (Gamma Amino Butyric Acid). Does the drug, named above, increase or decrease its effect(s)? Benzodiazepines enhance the efficacy of the synaptic transmission of GABA by binding to its receptors. Describe status epilepticus? What drug class is used to treat this condition? Status epilepticus is a neurological disorder that occurs when seizures last too long or repetitively such that the patient does not recover within these episodes. The disorder can either be convulsive or non-convulsive. Benzodiazepines such as diazepam are used to treat Status epilepticus by bind to the benzodiazepines-GABA and barbiturate-receptor complex; therefore, increasing the inhibition of the neurotransmitter. List at least 5 symptoms of major unipolar depression. What are 3 side effects of SSRI drugs? Major unipolar depression is a mental health condition that affects both males and females, but the females are at higher risk of developing the illness than men. The following symptoms characterize it: psychomotor agitation or retardation; suicidal thoughts; sudden loss or gain in weight; insomnia or hyperinsomnia; and loss of interest in daily activities. SSRI drugs are used to treat major unipolar depression but have several side effects such as xerostomia, drowsiness, and nausea (Sultana, Spina & Trifiro, 2015).
PHARMACOLOGY3 Name the type of antidepressant that is best for the elderly depressed patient? Why is it preferred? Depression is a significant concern among the elderly, and it is essential that it is properly diagnosed and treated. Untreated patients are likely to have suicidal thoughts, adverse health conditions, and overall poor quality of life (Sultana, Spina & Trifiro, 2015). A patient’s physiological heterogeneity determines their response to medication. The effective antidepressants for the elderly are the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) since they exhibit better tolerance and marginal side effects to a patient’s body (Sultana, Spina & Trifiro, 2015). For instance, citalopram, an SSRI, has diminished risks of pharmacokinetic interactions since they have no effect a patient’s cytochrome P450 system. List three symptoms of Parkinson’s Disease. Use the medical terminology. Parkinson’s disease affects the brain’s capacity to coordinate movements. Individuals with Parkinson’s disease have nerve cells that degenerate slowly and ultimately lose the ability to produce dopamine: a chemical responsible for the control of movements (DeLong et al., 2014). Patients with these disorder experience bradykinesia, which is the slowness of movement due to fatigue and weakness (DeLong et al., 2014). Besides, most patients experience postural instability due to failed brain reflexes that control balance. Also, the patients may experience progressive muscle rigidity and stiffness that often causes cramping and discomfort. Explain the effects of dopamine and acetylcholine on movement. What happens to these neurotransmitters with Parkinson’s Disease? The neurons in the substantia nigra are responsible for the production of dopamine, which controls movement (DeLong et al., 2014). Patients with Parkinson’s disease have nerve cells that die off minimizing the amount of dopamine produced. When the dopamine levels decrease, a
PHARMACOLOGY4 patient may begin to experience stiffness, postural instability, and slow movements. Minimal levels of dopamine increase the levels of acetylcholine that contributes to the motor symptoms (DeLong et al., 2014). List three major effects of stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system. Sympathetic stimulation is part of the autonomous nervous system, which activates the fight and flight mechanism (Mancia & Grassi, 2014). Sympathetic stimulation increases heartbeat; increases blood pressure; and decreases the motility of the colon (Mancia & Grassi, 2014). List three major effects on other organs systems from the stimulation of the parasympathetic nervous system. By contrast, parasympathetic stimulation is responsible for the “rest and digest” activities (Mancia & Grassi, 2014. It stimulates digestion and lacrimation. Besides, it slows the heart rate by decreasing the rate of diastolic depolarization. List the neurotransmitters of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system The cholinergic nerves release the acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter involved in parasympathetic stimulation. Similarly, the sympathetic nerves are responsible for the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine. What is acetylcholinesterase? What is its effect? Acetylcholinesterase is an enzyme that is found in the neuromuscular junctions and cholinergic synapses; it hydrolyzes acetylcholine and other choline esters into choline and acetic acid.
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PHARMACOLOGY5 CNS 1& 2 Discussion Questions Explain what it means if a drug is a “non-ceiling” drug. Non-ceiling drugs have no upper limits to the dosage forms that can be administered to patients who developed tolerance to previous doses. Some of these non-ceiling drugs include methadone and morphine (Nielsen et al., 2016). What is the mechanism of action of an opioid agonist? Opioids act on the brain opioid receptors causing analgesia and anesthesia. Opioid agonists fully activate the brain opioid receptors hence undergoing a significant conformational change, which results in maximal opioid effects (Nielsen et al., 2016) Opioid agonists include morphine and hydrocodone. List at least three symptoms of opioid toxicity or overdose. What type of drug is used to treat this? Some of the symptoms of opioid toxicity include hypotension, sedation, and respiratory depression (Nielsen et al., 2016). Such effects can be reversed by the administration of opioid antagonists such as Naloxone, which displace the opiates from the brain opioid receptors (Robison & Wermeling, 2014). List at least 4 symptoms of opioid withdrawal. Name two types of drug treatment for opioid withdrawal. Opioid withdrawal refers to both mental and physical signs that occur after the last dosage of opioids, and it may last for hours to weeks. Some of the withdrawal symptoms that may develop include lacrimation, anxiety, piloerection, and diarrhea (Robison & Wermeling, 2014). To counter these symptoms, patients may be prescribed with particular drugs, for instance, Naltrexone and Buprenorphine which as full and partial agonists respectively.
PHARMACOLOGY6 What does it mean if an opioid drug is a non-ceiling drug? What side effect will increase as the dose of opioid is increased? If an opioid drug is a non-ceiling drug, then, there is no ceiling for the dose that can be prescribed safely. However, higher doses increase potential side effects such as addiction and respiratory depression. What are the effects the nurse would expect from a drug that blocks both COX-1 and COX-2? Which are beneficial, which are side effects? Cyclooxygenases, COX-1 and COX-2, release prostaglandins that cause inflammation, soreness, and pyrexia; conversely, COX-1 produces prostaglandins which activate the body’s platelets and protects the gastrointestinal mucosal layer (Korotkova & Jakobsson, 2014). A nurse would expect reduced inflammation, analgesia, antipyrexia, and reduced platelet aggregation. Besides, the nurse would expect some side effects such as nausea, abdominal pain, insomnia, and headaches. What are advantages of a drug that is more selective for COX-2? A drug that is more selective for COX-2 helps suppress the production of prostaglandins, which results in suppressed inflammation, analgesia, and reduced fever (Korotkova & Jakobsson, 2014). Such drugs help reduce the effects of prostaglandins due to the action of COX-2 while preserving the integrity of the action of COX-1; therefore, patients are less likely to suffer from gastrointestinal toxicity and excessive bleeding (Korotkova & Jakobsson, 2014).
PHARMACOLOGY7 Antibiotics 1&2 Discussion Questions Define opportunistic Opportunistic defines the condition where an organism that under normal circumstance is harmless but may become pathogenic when a host’s immunity is compromised. Define superinfection Superinfection is a new infection that occurs in a patient who has a preexisting infection; for instance, having a urinary tract infection caused by microbial agents that are resistant to the antibiotics administered for a recent sinus infection. What is a beta-lactamase inhibitor? A beta-lactamase inhibitor blocks the action of beta-lactamases, which helps prevent the degradation of beta-lactam antibiotics (Burns et al., 2015). Beta-lactamases are produced by certain species of bacteria such as theEnterococcusspecies: they inactivate antibiotics (cephalosporin and penicillin) by cleaving the beta-lactam ring (Burns et al., 2015). However, their activity can be maintained for longer periods by combining with beta-lactamase inhibitors such as Clavulanic acid. Name at least three nursing interventions to reduce the development of resistant organisms. Antimicrobial resistance is an emerging issue in the treatment of various bacterial infections. Nurses play a significant role in reducing the development of resistant organisms through numerous interventions. The development of resistant microbes is a threat to the public sector and patients’ health (Alividza, 2017). Through public education, nurses can help the masses comprehend the sophisticated medical terms, and change their misconceptions on antimicrobial resistance (Alividza, 2017). Besides, public participation in quality improvement
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PHARMACOLOGY8 programs helps create awareness of drug resistance. Also, the nurses advocate for proper hand hygiene to reduce the risks of cross-contamination (Alividza, 2017). Such interventions prevent the transmission of resistant organisms from surfaces or people.
PHARMACOLOGY9 References Alividza. V. (2017). Reducing drug resistance through antimicrobial stewardship strategies. Nursing Times, 113(9), 22-25. Burns, C. J., Daigle, D., Liu, B., McGarry, D., Pevear, D. C., TROUT, R.E.L., & Jackson, R. W. (2015).U.S Patent No. 9,040,504. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. DeLong, M.R., Huang, K.T., Gallis, J., Lokhnygina, Y., Parente, B., Hickey, P., … & Lad, S. P. (2014). Effect of advancing age on outcomes of deep brain stimulation for Parkinson disease.JAMA neurology, 71(10), 1290-1295. Korotkova, M., & Jakobsson, P. J. (2014). Characterization of microsomal prostaglandin E synthase 1 inhibitors.Basic & clinical phamacology & toxicology, 114(1), 64-69. Mancia, G., & Grassi, G. (2014). The autonomic nervous system and hypertension.Circulation research, 114(11), 1804-1814. Nielsen, S., Lawrence, B., Degenhardt, L., Gowing, L., Kehler, C., & Lintzeris, N. (2016). Opioid agonist treatment for pharmaceutical opioid dependent people.Cocharane Database of Systematic Reviews, (5). Robison, A., & Wermeling, D. P. (2014). Intranasal naloxone administration for treatment of opoid overdose.American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy, 71(24), 2129-2135. Sultana, J., Spina, E., & Trifiro, G. (2015). Antidepressant use in the elderly: the role of pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics in drug safety.Expert opinion on drug metabolism & toxicology, 11(6), 883-892.