Gastrointestinal Anatomy and Physiology

The provided assignment includes past paper questions on gastrointestinal anatomy and physiology. It covers topics such as the oesophageal phase, which involves the contraction wave that helps move food from the oesophagus into the stomach. The assignment also touches on selective reabsorption in the kidneys, where three processes occur: filtration, reabsorption, and secretion. Additionally, it discusses the urea cycle, which converts toxic ammonia into non-toxic urea. The questions provided are based on various sources, including 'Sturkie's Avian Physiology' and 'Principles of Human Physiology'.

Physiology and Digestive
Processes

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Describe the levels of organisation in the human body......................................................1
2. What body system is this? Describe the function of this System.......................................1
3. Which body system is this? Describe the function of this System.....................................2
4 What body system is this? Describe the function of this System........................................2
5. Name the different tissues found in this organ and explain how they make the organ work. 3
6 What is the role of muscular tissue in an organ?.................................................................4
7 What is the role of connective tissue in an organ................................................................4
8 What is the role of connective tissue in an organ................................................................4
9 What effect does fibre have on the body?...........................................................................4
10. Why are vitamins such as B12 important to the human body?........................................4
11. What is this a picture of? .................................................................................................5
12 What is this nutritional deficiency? How does it effect the sufferer's health? .................5
13 What is this nutritional deficiency? How does it effect the sufferer's health?.................6
14 What is this nutritional deficiency? How does it effect the sufferer's health? .................6
15 Describe the breakdown of Carbohydrates........................................................................6
16 Describe the breakdown of Fats........................................................................................7
17 Describe the breakdown of Proteins..................................................................................7
18 Label this diagram,............................................................................................................7
19 Name the Enzyme Activator that is required to combine with Pepsinogen to break down
Protein Chains........................................................................................................................8
20 Describe the effects on the body when the protein enzyme activator is missing..............8
21 What is Hypochlorhydria and what are the main treatments?...........................................8
22 Label this diagram. ...........................................................................................................8
23 Explain Active Transport of Glucose................................................................................9
24 Where in the Kidney Nephron does the Active Transport of Glucose take place?...........9
25 Where does filtration take place?......................................................................................9
26 How much of the Glomerular filtrate is not reabsorbed?..................................................9
27 Describe the different effects of reflexes on the digestive system....................................9
28 What types of reflexes are controlled by the ENS?...........................................................9

29 GI Peptides effect the feelings of…..................................................................................9
30 Compare the way that the nervous system and the endocrine system co-ordinates the
digestive system....................................................................................................................10
31 Where are the hormones for blood sugar regulation created?.........................................10
32. Which hormone encourages glucose to be converted into glycogen?............................10
33 Which hormone encourages glycogen to be converted into glucose?.............................10
34 Describe Homoeostasis in relation to Blood Glucose.....................................................10
35 Smooth muscles is both...................................................................................................10
36 Blood and Lymph are examples of ……… tissue...........................................................11
37 Which of these structures is considered an accessory organ in the digestive system? ...11
38 Bile is produced in the …….. And stored in the ……….. .............................................11
39 What is the name for the process of forming Glucose, from anything other than
Carbohydrate? ......................................................................................................................11
40 Which of the following is not part of Gastric Secretion Phases? ...................................11
41 Deficiency of which vitamin causes prolonged clotting, bruising and bleeding?...........12
42 The contraction wave which helps move the food bolus down from the oesophagus and
into the stomach is called….................................................................................................12
43 Three processes involved in Urine production are:.........................................................12
44 Three processes occurring in selective reabsorption are:................................................12
45 What is the process that helps in converting the toxic ammonia produced as a by-product,
into non toxic urea. Where does this occur?.........................................................................12
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................13

1. Describe the levels of organisation in the human body.
The whole organisation of the human body has been done at various levels. A very common
example is considered as the cell. All the six levels of the organisation of body are discussed as
under :
 Chemical
 Tissues
 Organ system
 Organism
 Organ
 Cellular (Macfarlane and Macfarlane, 2012)
2. What body system is this? Describe the function of this System.
The body system is digestive system and plays a very important role in the overall functioning of
the body. There are various organs that all together works so that the intake of food by the person
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can be easily converted into the essential nutrients and energy required for the body. By the
means of alimentary canal, the food passes in the body. Various organs involved in the digestive
system involves oesophagus, small and large intestines, salivary glands, stomach etc.
3. Which body system is this? Describe the function of this System
The body system is skeletal system and its has many functions. There are 206 bones on an
overall basis in the skeletal system. The major functions it supports involve that it helps in the
movement of the body. Without bones, it was quite difficult for the flesh to stay still. So, it
provides a sort of support. Also, it helps in producing the blood cells as well. Minerals are also
stored in the same. So, it supports various functions that are essential for the human body.
4 What body system is this? Describe the function of this System.
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The body system is respiratory system. The basic function of the respiratory system is the
transportation of air within the lungs and making the process of oxygen diffusing in the blood
quite easy. In addition, the unnecessary amount of carbon dioxide that is present in the blood is
also being exhausted with the help of respiratory system.
5. Name the different tissues found in this organ and explain how they make the organ
work.
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This is a heart. There are three types of tissues in the heart and these are the cardiac, skeletal and
smooth. All these tissues have a different role with a unique structure as well. All these tissues
make the heart work as the skeletal muscle is responsible for moving the bones along with the
other basic structures (Sommer and Bäckhed, 2013). The contraction of heart is being done so
that it can pump the blood and it is being done by the cardiac muscle. The blood supply is
essential as if the heart is not able to continue the supply of blood, in that case, the tissues and
organs can even die as well. So, a well and proper functioning of the heart is very important.
6 What is the role of muscular tissue in an organ?
There are various muscular tissues in an organ and every single tissue has different functions.
The movement of the different structures of the body along with the bones is being done by the
skeletal muscle. The contraction of heart for pumping the blood is being done by the cardiac
muscle. With the help of smooth muscle tissues, various organs like stomach, bladder forms.
7 What is the role of connective tissue in an organ
The role of connective tissue in an organ is that it helps in providing a sort of means of
transportation for the essential components such as oxygen etc. in the body. A very common
example of a connective tissue is blood.
8 What is the role of connective tissue in an organ
A balanced diet is considered as a diet that is complete in all the essential nutrients so that the
body can function properly and stay healthy. It consists of all the basic nutrients that seems
important for the body to stay healthy and fit.
9 What effect does fibre have on the body?
A. Improved Digestive Health
B. Weight Gain
C. Improved Muscle Strength
D. Protects teeth from Decay
A. Improved digestive health
10. Why are vitamins such as B12 important to the human body?
Vitamins such as B12 are important for the human body because it helps in maintaining the
nerve cells healthy. Also, it helps in an efficient production of the RNA as well as DNA. So, it is
essential because it makes red blood cells and that are very important for the body to work better.
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11. What is this a picture of?
Explain the purpose.
This is a picture of a balanced diet. As it contains some fruits and vegetables, bread, meat, dairy
products, so it depicts a complete and balanced meal. The purpose of a balanced meal is that it
helps in staying the person fit and healthy.
12 What is this nutritional deficiency? How does it effect the sufferer's health?
Nutritional deficiency is considered as a sort of deficiency when the body is not able to get the
proper nutrients from the food consumed. It can be due to various reasons but further causes
various health issues such as nutritional deficiency, various digestion issues etc.
The following is the iron deficiency anaemia. It happens when the storage level for iron in the
body decreases to a huge extent that it starts supporting the count of red blood cells. Its impact
on the health of the person suffering can be that the red blood cells will make less haemoglobin,
thus causing tiredness, short breath, pain in chest etc.
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13 What is this nutritional deficiency? How does it effect the sufferer's health?
The following nutritional deficiency is rickets. It happens because of the deficiency of vitamin D
in the human body. The impact of rickets on the health of the person suffering is that it softens
the bones, thus increasing the overall chance of damage during any accidents or injuries.
14 What is this nutritional deficiency? How does it effect the sufferer's health?
The following nutritional deficiency is scurvy which is caused by the deficiency of vitamin C in
the human body. The person suffering from this can also lead to various further factors such as
bleeding, fatigue etc. So, the person suffering from scurvy should involve the use of more fruits
and vegetables in their diet so as to prevent themselves from it.
15 Describe the breakdown of Carbohydrates.
The breakdown of carbohydrates is very important for a better functioning of all the
operations of a body. There are various carbohydrates inside the body, such as the maltose. There
are enzymes in the intestines of the body and breakdown of it in glucose molecules is done and is
important. Also, when the starch molecules are being broken down in the form of glucose, by the
help of intestines, they enter within the blood stream.
16 Describe the breakdown of Fats.
The breakdown of fats in done in the process of lipolysis. It is being broken down in form
of glycerol and fatty acids.
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17 Describe the breakdown of Proteins.
The breakdown of proteins is being done in the form of amino acids. This breakdown is
being done by the protease enzymes.
18 Label this diagram,
A
B
C
D
This represents the lock and key theory.
A – Substrate
B – Active site
C – Enzyme/products complex
D - Products
19 Name the Enzyme Activator that is required to combine with Pepsinogen to break down
Protein Chains.
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Pepsin is considered as the enzyme activator that helps in breaking down the protein chains after
combining with the pepsinogen.
20 Describe the effects on the body when the protein enzyme activator is missing.
When there is absence of protein enzyme activator, then no binding will be done with the
enzymes, thus the activity levels does not increase and remains low.
21 What is Hypochlorhydria and what are the main treatments?
Hypochlorhydria is termed as a state when the level of hydrochloric acid has been decreased or
absent in the gastric secretions within the stomach. Some very common and well known
treatments include eating manuka honey, taking different digestive enzymes, consuming apple
cider vinegar.
22 Label this diagram.
23 Explain Active Transport of Glucose.
The active transport of glucose relies on the actual requirement of the cell. After the process of
digestion, the molecules of food break down into smaller molecules and it can be even absorbed
by the intestinal wall as well. In blood plasma, the glucose is carried out and the dissolved
glucose is spread in the cells of the human body.
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24 Where in the Kidney Nephron does the Active Transport of Glucose take place?
The process of transportation occurs in the small blood capillaries which are considered as the
glomerulus as they exclude the wastes from the blood stream.
25 Where does filtration take place?
The process of filtration takes place in the renal corpuscle.
D. 2%
1% of glomerular
filtrate is not
reabsorbed.
27 Describe the different effects of reflexes on the digestive system.
The different effects of refluxes on the digestive system are discussed as following. The
lower oesophageal sphincter when in case does not functions properly, in that case, the acids in
the stomach escapes and comes back to the oesophagus.
28 What types of reflexes are controlled by the ENS?
A. Long reflexes
B. Short reflexes
C. Outside reflexes
Internal reflexes
Long refluxes
29 GI Peptides effect the feelings of….
A. Hunger
B. Anxiety
C. Thirst
D. Excretion Requirements
Hunger
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26 How much of the Glomerular filtrate is not reabsorbed?
A. 0.5%
B. 1%
C. 1.5%

30 Compare the way that the nervous system and the endocrine system co-ordinates the
digestive system
It can be compared as there are some similarities, there are some dissimilarities as well. The
similarity is that they both have a proper respond to the stimuli and also have their target organs.
The difference between them is that the coordination by the nervous system is being done by the
electric impulses and in endocrine system, it is being done by glands and hormones.
31 Where are the hormones for blood sugar regulation created?
A. The Thyroid
B. The Islets of Langerhans
C. The Stomach
The Small Intestine
B. The islets of Langerhans (Wijck and Buurman, 2012)
32. Which hormone encourages glucose to be converted into glycogen?
Glucagon
33 Which hormone encourages glycogen to be converted into glucose?
Glucagon
34 Describe Homeostasis in relation to Blood Glucose.
The regulation of the level of blood glucose is done by the opposing hormones, glucagon and the
insulin. By the help of pancreas, insulin is being produced and further facilitation takes place. Tis
functioning is done in order to decrease the overall level of glucose inside the blood stream.
35 Smooth muscles is both
A. Involuntary and Striated
B. Involuntary and Non-Striated
C. Voluntary and Striated
Voluntary and Non-Striated
B. Involuntary and non striated
36 Blood and Lymph are examples of ……… tissue
A. Dense connective tissue
B. Epithelial Tissue
C. Fluid connective tissue
D. Loose connective tissue
Ans : Fluid connective tissue
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37 Which of these structures is considered an accessory organ in the digestive system?
A. Duodenum
B. Ascending Colon
C. Pancreas
D. Rectum
Ans : Pancreas
38 Bile is produced in the …….. And stored in the ………..
A. Liver / Gall Bladder
B. Gall Bladder / Pancreas
C. Pancreas / Liver
D. Gall Bladder / Liver
Ans. Liver/ Gall bladder (Fabek and Goff, 2014)
39 What is the name for the process of forming Glucose, from anything other than
Carbohydrate?
A. Glucogenesis
B. Glycogenesis
C. Gluconeogenesis
D. Lypogenesis
Glycogenesis
40 Which of the following is not part of Gastric Secretion Phases?
A. Cephalic Phase
B. Gastric Phase
C. Oseophageal Phase
D. Intestinal Phase
Oesophageal phase
41 Deficiency of which vitamin causes prolonged clotting, bruising and bleeding?
Deficiency of vitamin K causes bruising, bleeding and prolonged clotting. Usually, the
deficiency is observed in case of breast fed infants/ Also, it is considered sometimes as the
platelet dys functioning.
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42 The contraction wave which helps move the food bolus down from the oesophagus and
into the stomach is called….
The contraction wave which helps in moving the food bolus down from the oesophagus and
inside the stomach is referred as Peristalsis (Denbow, 2015).
43 Three processes involved in Urine production are:
The processes involved in the production of urine are discussed as under :
 Filtration
 Reabsorption
 Secretion
44 Three processes occurring in selective reabsorption are:
The processes that occur in selective reabsorption process are discussed as under :
 Filtration
 Reabsorption
 Soluble reabsorption
 Tubular secretion
45 What is the process that helps in converting the toxic ammonia produced as a by-
product, into non toxic urea. Where does this occur?
The process that helps in converting the toxic ammonia that has been produced as a by product in
a non toxic urea is called as with the help of urea cycle. The urea cycle is also considered as the
ornithine cycle.
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REFERENCES
Books and Journals
Denbow, D. M., 2015. Gastrointestinal anatomy and physiology. In Sturkie's Avian Physiology
(Sixth Edition) (pp. 337-366).
Fabek, H. and Goff, H. D., 2014. The effect of in vitro digestive processes on the viscosity of
dietary fibres and their influence on glucose diffusion. Food Hydrocolloids. 35. pp.718-
726.
Karasov, W. H., Martinez del Rio, C. and Caviedes-Vidal, E., 2011. Ecological physiology of
diet and digestive systems. Annual review of physiology. 73. pp.69-93.
Macfarlane, G. T. and Macfarlane, S., 2012. Bacteria, colonic fermentation, and gastrointestinal
health. Journal of AOAC International. 95(1). pp.50-60.
Sherwood, L., 2015. Human physiology: from cells to systems. Cengage learning.
Sommer, F. and Bäckhed, F., 2013. The gut microbiota—masters of host development and
physiology. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 11(4). p.227.
Stanfield, C. L., 2012. Principles of human physiology. Pearson Higher Ed.
Wijck, K. and Buurman, W. A., 2012. Physiology and pathophysiology of splanchnic
hypoperfusion and intestinal injury during exercise: strategies for evaluation and
prevention. American journal of physiology-gastrointestinal and liver physiology. 303(2).
pp.G155-G168.
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