Exploring Racial Stereotyping and Bias

The provided document contains a list of research studies and articles that explore racial stereotyping and bias in different contexts. The studies cover topics such as children's racial categorization, racial appearance bias, and the impact of power on implicit prejudice and stereotyping. The assignment also includes online sources and news articles related to this topic.

PSYCHOLOGY (RACIAL
STEREOTYPING)

TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................................................1
MAIN BODY .................................................................................................................................................................1
Overview ...................................................................................................................................................................1
Stereotype approaches ...............................................................................................................................................1
Discussion and arguments .........................................................................................................................................4
CONCLUSION ..............................................................................................................................................................8
REFERENCES ...............................................................................................................................................................9

INTRODUCTION
Social psychology is defined as the psychological aspect which deals with the behaviour, feelings
and though processing of an individual which are influenced by the implied presence of others as well as
social interactions. The social psychology helps in analysing the thinking and behaviour of people towards
each other so that their relations can be improved. The stereotype is known as the common assumption
regarding specific community or individuals and thus may be partially true or completely true (Priest &
et.al., 2018). The psychology of an individual plays a critical role in stereotyping and thus various
stereotype approaches must be learned so that they can be overcome. The racial stereotyping also cause
discrimination and violence events among social groups. It becomes more dangerous when one groups
create barriers for the other on the basis of racial discrimination (Todd & et.al., 2016). In this study an
article based on racial stereotyping is chosen and associated stereotype approaches are reviewed so that
social issue can be understood and resolved.
MAIN BODY
Overview
Within social psychology stereotypes involves over generalised assumptions and beliefs about
particular community or group of individuals. These are known as generalised because it is assumed that
the concept is true for each and every individual in the community irrespective of their individual identity or
reality. Some of the most common stereotypes are based upon nationality, sexual orientation, race or
religion. Though stereotypes can be positive or negative but they are considered as harmful as they lead
to inaccurate prejudice. It also has adverse impact on mental and emotional health of an individual. Racial
stereotypes provides the strong ground for the discrimination and thus individuals often develops negative
attitude towards different people. The conflicts and discriminatory grounds also leads to racism based
violence and differences among individuals which is not good for the social balance and peace.
Stereotype approaches
Racial stereotyping is very common in the society and is evident in both positive and negative
assumptions towards a particular race. One of the key disadvantage of stereotyping is that on one hand it
inversely affects the well-being of a person while on the other hand it neglects the individual identity of
person which is overshadowed by a pre-assumption of entire group (Pauker & et.al., 2016). There are
mainly three types of stereotyping approaches. The first approach is known as socio cultural approach
which states that the behaviour of any person is influenced by their surroundings, cultural institutions and
their nationality (Welch, 2007).
Contrary to this second stereotyping approach is called psychodynamic approach which
emphasise that personality trait and unconscious state of mind affects the behaviour and thus lead to
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stereotyping (Rivera & Benitez, 2016). Another popular stereotype approach is trait and type approach in
which assumptions related to personality characteristics and behaviour are used for making stereotypes.
The approach can be explained by using Implicit personality theory in which various patterns are used to
stereotype (Schmid & Amodio, 2017). For instance a specific characteristic can be used to stereotype the
overall personality or other characteristic of another person which may or may not be valid or true. These
approaches help to understand various dimensions of stereotyping and justify that these approaches are
manageable and must be prioritise so that racial discrimination can be prevented.
One third of whites claim they are victims of racism
The article explains the impact of racial stereotyping on people who are usually considered as
responsible for the racial stereotyping. In most of the events it is assumed that on the basis of racial
stereotypes black people are always discriminated and harassed. Contrary to this the article present the
views of white people who believes that stereotyping advantages and preferences are proving extremely
beneficial for black people but being the non-stigmatised population their interest and welfare is discarded
by the authorities as well as other ethnic groups in the nation. In this study two major stereotyping
approaches will be discussed and on the basis of it article will be reviewed. The stereotyping beliefs are
associated with both majority and minority ethnic groups (Maddox & Perry, 2018). Thus, the approaches
will be discussed from the perspective of both author and readers.
Stereotype held by the author
As per the views of author the racial stereotyping discussed in the article is associated with the
sociocultural approach. It can be explained by the sociocultural theory proposed by Pettigrew which
states that psychology of individuals depends upon the cognitive development as well as culture in which
they live. It has been discussed in the article that since British culture has long history of dominance racial
categorisation is quite obvious. Due to this reason, white people assume that their racial stereotypes and
behaviour towards other ethnic group is valid. The supporting argument claimed by white people is that in
the name of race relation strategies minor ethnic groups are provided more support.
The strategy and non-discriminatory legislation policy seems to be opposite then the conventional
and cultural trends as followed by white people (Todd & et.al., 2016). From the perspective of authors, it
can also be stated that since in the British culture it is assumed that white people are always powerful and
dominating it can be harmful for the individuals who are suffered from the other minor ethnic groups in
power. Due to long history of racial stereotypes it is possible that interest of majority groups is
underestimated and minor ethnic groups are provided more preferences (Rivera & Benitez, 2016).
The ancient racial stereotypes in the British culture is well suppressed and managed by suitable
regulations and strategies but due to social factor it may not be acceptable to dominating white groups.
This can be one of the reason due to which such dissatisfaction has emerged among white people. It can
also be analysed that such type of sociocultural changes are also giving rise to more stereotypes (Schmid
& Amodio, 2017). White people are developing prejudices that in their own country minor groups are
given more priority while their interest and opinions are not given importance in decision making. Thus,
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from the sociocultural aspect of author it can be concluded that for the authorities it is necessary that such
culture must be prevented. The increasing events of racial stereotyping can lead to several critical
consequences such as racial hatred and discrimination based upon stereotyping. All sections of the
population must be given fair and equal treatment and society so that such stereotypes are not furnished
and transformed into hatred.
Stereotype held by readers
Another stereotyping approach which can be linked with the racial stereotyping issue highlighted
in the article is psychodynamic approach. The Frustration aggression hypothesis of this approach
resembles to the point of view of readers (Pauker, Williams & Steele, 2016). This theory states that
frustration, aggression and emotional break downs affects the behaviour and growth of individuals. In
response to the equal treatment and rights to black and other minority people many readers from the
white community may become aggressive and frustrated. Contrary to their ancient culture, currently other
ethnic groups are given more priority which is not acceptable to them. It has been causing development of
stereotypes based hatred.
On the other hand the readers from minor ethnic groups may again consider this article as trigger
to their aggression. The minority groups in Britain have stereotypes that white people cannot give them
equal respect and does not bother for their welfare. The article can be seemed as inappropriate to them
(Bentley-Edwards & Stevenson, 2016). Most of the non-white ethnic groups have this stereotype and thus
from their perspective the concerns of white community may not be genuine. The article can enhance the
frustration of the people who are victim of racial discrimination. Such victim may think that article also
supports the discriminatory stereotypes.
There are certain events which makes individuals aggressive and frustrating. The stereotyping
can also make people used to it and to react in the same manner as predicted by stereotypes. For
example, when some people from the specific community are regularly insulted and stated that their race
is used to experience this then in such situations they become highly aggressive and guilty. It creates
significant impact on their cognitive ability and thinking process. In the continuous progression in
frustration individuals often commits or inspired to take illegal or unacceptable actions. There are higher
possibilities that when such individuals acquire power then they tend to misuse power in response to their
frustration and hardships due to racial stereotyping. Thus article may not be appreciated equally by all the
readers. People from different ethnic groups will have different response and opinion on the basis of their
stereotyping experiencing, behavioural and psychological considerations (Intravia & Pickett, 2019). It
cannot be concluded with certainty that all members of community will respond in the same way. The
acceptance of the facts presented in the article will be adopted differently by various individuals
irrespective of their racial status.
Discussion and arguments
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Stereotypes are very common in society and almost every race and culture have to experience
their impacts. Different racial groups such as Blacks, Irish, Jewish, Polish and all races experiences such
racial stereotypes which eliminates the individuality of people and make judgements regarding entire
group. These assumptions can be good as well as bad. For example it is believed by people that all
Blacks are good athlete but it may not be true and thus on the basis of this assumption some individuals
are judged with lower score (Lo & et.al., 2017). However, it cannot be justified that a single assumption
suits to all individuals. It has been also analysed that the authors and readers have different perspectives
on the issue and thus these must be addressed by using appropriate social psychological theories. For
instance the frustration aggression hypothesis theory explains that aggression and frustration affects the
perception of individuals in developing stereotypes towards other communities (Pauker, Williams &
Steele, 2016). It is also be supported by Pettigrew theory which emphasis on culture and environment of
individual which plays great role in encouraging the stereotyping.
Similarly, the belief that black or specific community must not be provided equal treatment and
respect because of historical facts or racial context is also not acceptable. This may also be true that such
stereotypes may lead to unfair treatment to other racial groups. For example in the above discussed
article contrary to the popular stereotypes white people are complaining that they are experiencing racial
discrimination. Most of the people may not assume it corrects because they have strong assumption and
belief that discrimination and harsh events are faced by only blacks and whites are responsible for that.
Thus, it is very necessary to understand the cause and impact of such racial stereotyping so that
rights and safety of individuals can be assured irrespective of their race and associated stereotype. It has
been analysed that racial stereotypes are always supportive to race of holders while the other racial
groups may face discriminatory or less favoured support. It can also be visualised as the natural
tendency of the human behaviour to support and benefit the ethical group to which they belong. Thus, for
promoting and protecting safety and welfare of their group racial stereotypes regarding other groups are
justified by them. From receiving education to the professional growth racism can be seen in all aspects
of the society.
According to Pauker & et.al., (2018) every individual has separate identity thus it is not
acceptable and ethical to stigmatised a particular racial group whether it is minority or majority. For
instance in British society it can be one of the stereotype that Black people have to experience struggles
in their survival and they face discrimination from the whites. At the same time among minority and other
racial groups also there can be stereotype that since all white people are discriminatory they must not be
supported. Both of the stereotypes are not suitable for the society as it affects the ability of an individual
by challenging their self worth and beliefs.
It has become extremely necessary for the social groups to manage such stereotypes so that
stereotype threats can be eliminated. Stereotype threat is known as the fear of committing any action
which can confirm the negative stereotypes of stigmatised group. For example when any particular racial
group is made to belief that their racial members are not good at verbal abilities then it develops a fear
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among them. Every time when they need to show their verbal abilities the stereotype make them nervous
and aware of the common stereotype. As a result naturally their performance or verbal abilities are
influenced.
The impact of racial stereotypes are highly robust and can influence all stigmatised groups. The
racial stereotypes have significant impact on the child development and their growth as well. For instance
the stereotypes can influence the memory performance and educational attainment level of individuals.
Anxiety is also common physiology change among stigmatised individuals depleting cognitive ability and
leading to underperformance which ultimately confirms the negative stereotype and reinforces fear
(Hamilton, 2015). The target and extent of racist attitude has changed significantly in UK and has great
association with the British empire and colonial period. Thus, it the fact cannot be denied that the social
and cultural foundation of UK has contributed in racial stereotyping.
Due to practice of such concepts still many people assume and follow the racial stereotypes.
Though there are no such regulations which support the racial discrimination but racial hatred and
stereotypes are the major factor creating conflicts among social groups. In the historical events it has
been observed that Black British, Asians and other racial groups were not treated properly. Thus, the
historical facts also played a key role in affecting the psychological and emotional perspective of
individuals towards the other racial groups. The racial stereotypes also affect the communication pattern
and behaviour.
The extent of stereotyping impact have been very dominating and influential. For example many
ethnic minorities are not allowed to enter into specific restaurants and places or to have equal promotion
opportunities at work place. The situation becomes more critical when along with the social groups
authorities are also accused of having stereotypes. There are examples of the cases when
institutionalised racism is followed by police forces and regulatory authorities.
The social categorisation is natural and one of the part of the society so that different racial and
ethnic groups can be identified (Horowitz & et.al., 2017). However, such social simplification often leads
to stereotyping. The individuals often adopt stereotypes from their surrounding culture and environment.
When people observe their friends and family members experience or believes any of the racial
stereotypes then the same is also developed among children. Thus stereotype transmission can also be
considered as one of the driving force for encouraging such practices. For example when any of the white
British harass other ethnic group then the other group will tend to develop a stereotype for all white
people without considering their individual identity. In the future whenever affected group will witness
white man then they a fear will emerge relating to stereotype.
However, such types of stereotypes may not seems to be true in all conditions. It is also possible
that a white community person is maltreated by a dominating and influential person from black
community. In such community on the basis of existing stereotyping it can be extremely hard for the white
man to prove his innocence (Minhas, Walsh & Bull, 2017). Thus, it is very necessary that racial
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stereotyping must be regulated so that all racial groups can be protected. Along with the legislative
support it also requires bringing changes in the social perspective and beliefs.
One of the most common aspect which leads to racial stereotyping is that many people
overestimate the desired of other ethnic groups and under estimate the actions prescribed by social roles.
For example when an individual from economically backward community does not achieve success then it
is assumed that they are well suited for lower job role and thus the event is justified. Thus, contrary to this
when the same individual achieves huge success then it creates a hatred among other groups that how
one can be different from the prejudice stereotype (Rivera & Benitez, 2016). Such types of differences are
the major reason for creating racial hatred and stereotyping. The racial stereotypes mainly interferes
within job roles and professional aspects. Stereotypes develop spontaneously and thus are very
dominating and pervasive.
Apart from the social categorisation another reason which leads to the development of racial
stereotypes is that individuals have less interaction and knowledge of other communities. Due to this
reason, they easily adopt and agree different types of labels on racial groups irrespective of the reality
check. The less interaction also make it easy for the people to believe misconception easily.
As per Bentley-Edwards & Stevenson, (2016) when one member of any community has negative
experience with an individual of specific group then it will strengthen the racial stereotypes and thus a
feeling of aggression or fear will be developed for the particular race. The same is explained by the
psychodynamic stereotyping approach. Most of the people in society takes these stereotypes in very
casual way and thus they emphasise that racial comments or stereotype based jokes are politically
correct and thus no restrictions must be imposed on them. Contrary to this in majority of the cases racial
stereotypes tends to have harmful impact as they neglect individual identity, humanity and uniqueness of
people.
The stereotypical and distorting perceptions regarding any community or the racial groups are
devaluing and emotionally painful. The people who repeatedly faces negative criticism foster inferiority
feeling and aggressions. It may also happen that such type of victim people when achieve power they
tend to support racist or discriminatory practices as means of revenge or satisfaction (Minhas, Walsh &
Bull, 2017). Thus, racial stereotypes must be overcome by acknowledging the feeling of respect and
dignity for racial diversity.
The individuals who have stereotypical thoughts can follow up with the real facts and knowledge
so that their misconception can be resolved and more clarity can be achieved. People must be educated
regarding diversity and adverse impact of racial stereotyping so that such practices can be abolished. The
children must be given information related to this so that from childhood individuals can learn to respect
and value the diversity (Rivera & Benitez, 2016). There is need that societies must develop a culture in
which racism based stereotypes are not appreciated by authorities as well as individuals. People must be
taught that linking one experience with the entire community cannot be considered as justified and thus
stereotyping must be addressed.
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CONCLUSION
It can be concluded from the discussion that stereotyping approaches must be applied to
understand the racial stereotypes which are very common in the society. For the development and
balance of the society it is necessary that racial stereotypes must be discarded and original facts must be
revealed so that social development can be accomplished above all these false assumptions. It can also
be concluding that different theories and approaches of psychology and stereotyping must be used to
understand and improve the behaviour and thinking of individuals.
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REFERENCES
Books and Journals
Bentley-Edwards, K. L., & Stevenson, H. C. (2016). The multidimensionality of racial/ethnic socialization:
Scale construction for the cultural and racial experiences of socialization (CARES). Journal of
Child and Family Studies. 25(1). 96-108.
Hamilton, D. L. (2015). Cognitive processes in stereotyping and intergroup behavior. Psychology Press.
Horowitz, C. R. & et.al., (2017). Race, genomics and chronic disease: What patients with African ancestry
have to say. Journal of health care for the poor and underserved. 28(1). 248.
Intravia, J., & Pickett, J. T. (2019). Stereotyping Online? Internet News, Social Media, and the Racial
Typification of Crime. In Sociological Forum.
Lo, C. C. & et.al., (2017). Racial differences in college students' assessments of campus race
relations. Journal of College Student Development. 58(2). 247-263.
Maddox, K. B., & Perry, J. M. (2018). Racial appearance bias: Improving evidence-based policies to
address racial disparities. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 5(1). 57-65.
Minhas, R. A., Walsh, D., & Bull, R. (2017). Developing a scale to measure the presence of possible
prejudicial stereotyping in police interviews with suspects: The Minhas Investigative Interviewing
Prejudicial Stereotyping Scale (MIIPSS). Police Practice and Research. 18(2). 132-145.
Pauker, K. & et.al., (2016). Race essentialism and social contextual differences in children's racial
stereotyping. Child development. 87(5). 1409-1422.
Pauker, K. & et.al., (2018). A review of multiracial malleability: Identity, categorization, and shifting racial
attitudes. Social and Personality Psychology Compass. 12(6). e12392.
Pauker, K., Williams, A., & Steele, J. R. (2016). Children's racial categorization in context. Child
Development Perspectives. 10(1). 33-38.
Priest, N. & et.al., (2018). Correction: Stereotyping across intersections of race and age: Racial
stereotyping among White adults working with children. PloS one. 13(10). e0205614.
Rivera, L. M., & Benitez, S. (2016). The roles of in-group exemplars and ethnic-racial identification in self-
stereotyping. Social Cognition. 34(6). 604-623.
Schmid, P. C., & Amodio, D. M. (2017). Power effects on implicit prejudice and stereotyping: The role of
intergroup face processing. Social neuroscience. 12(2). 218-231.
Todd, A. R. & et.al., (2016). The generalization of implicit racial bias to young black boys: Automatic
stereotyping or automatic prejudice?. Social cognition. 34(4). 306-323.
Welch, K., 2007. Black criminal stereotypes and racial profiling. Journal of contemporary criminal
justice. 23(3). pp.276-288.
Online
Chapman., J., 2019. One third of whites claim they are victims of racism. [Online]. Accessed through
<https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1043717/One-whites-claim-victims-racism.html>
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