Qualitative Research Methods and Ethics

This assignment requires a critical analysis of qualitative research methods and ethics. Students are expected to examine phenomenological approaches to research, exploring how they understand orientations, objects, and others. The assignment also delves into the ethical considerations inherent in qualitative research, drawing upon sources such as Denzin & Lincoln (2008), Christians (2000), and Giorgi (1997). Students must analyze data analysis techniques used in qualitative research, considering their strengths and limitations. Additionally, they need to evaluate the reliability of quantitative measures used in conjunction with qualitative approaches, referencing sources like Desrosiers et al. (1995) and Oja (1983).

Running head: ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Analysis of Research Methodology
Name of the Student:
Name of the University:
Author’s Note:

ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 1
Executive Summary:
The report interprets the research methodology of various data like qualitative and
quantitative data analysis. The PICO and SPIDER analysis are incorporated in the following
report. Research ethics, prospects, phenomenological discussions were conducted in the
report below. The objective of the research report is to detect the procedures according to the
assigned objectives of the report. Research methodology is simply instructed by some
diagrams.

ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 2
Table of Contents
Introduction:-..............................................................................................................................4
Discussion:-................................................................................................................................4
Research Ethics:-....................................................................................................................4
Autonomy:-........................................................................................................................4
Non-Maleficence:-.............................................................................................................5
Beneficence:-......................................................................................................................5
Justice:-..............................................................................................................................5
Veracity:-............................................................................................................................6
Qualitative methods:-.............................................................................................................6
Phenomenology:-...............................................................................................................6
Ethnography:-.....................................................................................................................6
Grounded Theory:-.............................................................................................................6
Phenomenological Research:-................................................................................................7
SPIDER methodology:-.....................................................................................................7
Data and Strategy in SPIDER method:-.............................................................................7
Question in Phenomenological Research:-........................................................................8
New Approach of evidence based Joanna Briggs Model:-................................................8
Quantitative methods:-.........................................................................................................10
Cohort Studies:-...............................................................................................................10
Cross-sectional Studies:-..................................................................................................10

ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3
An Example of Nursing Question including PICO analysis:-.........................................11
Double Blinding:-.............................................................................................................13
Control:-...........................................................................................................................13
Reliability and Validity (data collection instruments):-...................................................14
Descriptive Statistics:-.....................................................................................................15
Why t-test is used:-...........................................................................................................16
Why chi-square test is used:-...........................................................................................16
Meaning of p-value:-........................................................................................................17
Conduction of evidence-based RCT by Joanna Briggs:-.................................................17
References:-..............................................................................................................................19

ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 4
Introduction:-
The report describes about research ethics, prospects and procedure of a research
study. Different aspects of research procedure in qualitative and quantitative data and
illustration of various statistical terms are discussed here.
The PICO analysis, SPIDER analysis and research methodology are elaborated in the
research report. The importance of different functions of research ethics in phenomenological
research is described in the research.
The report is a reflection of true research method and procedure. Qualitative research
method and quantitative research method is useful for descriptive research method.
Discussion:-
Research Ethics:-
A tendency to see research almost entirely in ethical terms, such that target was to
achieve ethical goals and ethical ideals. Ethical considerations were believed to set
boundaries what researchers could do in pursuit of knowledge. Now-a-days ethical
considerations are treated by few rationale of research. Ethical decisions arise throughout the
whole research methodology from conceptualization and design, data collection and analysis,
report and literature (Christians 2000).
Autonomy:-
Academic or administrative autonomy is necessary of research ethics. Various aspects
of decision making from region to district administrative offices depend upon policy making
of research team (Whitty 1997). The functional autonomy measurement system is an
instrument designed to assess disabilities related to all functions.

ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 5
Non-Maleficence:-
It is crucial that potential participants are given adequate time to validate material and
make an informed choice. Another key component in research studies is that researchers are
aware of their right to withdraw from the study at any time. While right to privacy exists both
as a moral and legal right, the right is not absolute if researchers are deemed to be at risk. The
disclosure of sensitive information may occur within the raise of ethical issues of researchers
(Casey 2009). The disclosure of accountability should be informed to the researchers. While
the researcher aspects the participant’s right to privacy according to the principle of
autonomy, principles of beneficence and non-maleficence.
Beneficence:-
The principle of beneficence needs that researchers ensure the wellbeing of
participants. However, the principle of non-maleficence refers to the duty to protect
researchers from harm. The principle of beneficence demands that the researcher maximizes
any possible benefits of the research (Coughlan, Cronin and Ryan 2007). The researcher is
required to provide the research ethics committee with essential detail regarding the benefits
and risks associated with the study. It enables the research committee to determine the ethical
suitability of the project.
A risk-benefit assessment considers the potential risks in the research study where
ethics committee may have different review procedures to represent the minimal risk.
Justice:-
Justice is an essential requirement to include and exclude certain groups from the
research study. This requirement is the significance to the persons who are closely associated
to the principle of justice. This principle demands that those who are unable to protect their
own interests are not exploited to advance new knowledge.

ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 6
Veracity:-
Ethical approval can be daunting experience for novice researchers who may be
negotiating short time lines, challenging study and work schedules (Hannerz 2003).
Exploration of the theoretical basis of the research-ethics application method is essential for
researchers to demonstrate sufficiently the ethical approval.
Qualitative methods:-
Phenomenology:-
The phenomenology of qualitative research depends upon basic description of
awareness of descriptive tendency. Phenomenology is not merely a matter of going through
some mechanical process of “analysis” of the qualitative data and thereby generating a
description of experience. The reading of research methodology indicates a quantitative
method in ethical process (Diener and Crandall 1978).
Ethnography:-
The interpretative involve aesthetic issue representation beyond the pragmatic and the
researchers’ feedback. This provides the extent of research ethics according to the ethical
methodology. There needs to be congruence between research title, literature review, aim,
question, data collection methods and analysis. The feasibility of the study is considered in
the context of period.
Grounded Theory:-
Previously, grounded theory and their possibilities were posted against dominant
functionalist and structuralized theories. A grounded theory is faithful to the regular realities
of a substantive area that has been carefully induced from diverse data. As with any general
methodology, grounded theories’ actual use in practice has varied with the specifics of the

ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 7
area under study. The purpose and focus of the research, the contingencies faced during the
project puts an effect on temperament and particular gifts or weakness of the researcher.
Phenomenological Research:-
The target of qualitative phenomenological research is to elaborate “lived experience”
of a phenomenon (Ahmed 2006). As phenomenological research is a qualitative analysis of
narrative data, methods to analyze its data should be different from more traditional or
quantitative methods of research.
SPIDER methodology:-
SPIDER is abbreviated as sample, phenomenon of interest, design, evaluation and
research type. The SPIDER strategy was designed following reflections by the PICO analysis
of qualitative and mixed effect method. Sample justifies small groups and researchers of this
method. Phenomenon of interest indicates the quantitative aims to understand certain
behaviors of exposure and evidential. A design is to theoretical behavior of qualitative
research for the determination of international statistics. Evaluation of qualitative research
has the same result according to the subjective contrasts of quantitative contrast.
Data and Strategy in SPIDER method:-
The data that are usually collected in Phenomenological research is qualitative in
nature. SPIDER is a strategic tool that enables exploratory data analysis. We consider the
optimal condition of the components of mixed-method research. Compiling a test sample, we
consider the optimal content of the potentiality. SPIDER unintentionally has highlighted the
good quality indexing of qualitative articles in the database. We consider the optimal
combination of specificity of the subject-topics sensitive for methodological content in the
intent of qualitative evidence and fruitful line of enquiry.

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The data is commonly used with the strategy of rigor phenomenological research. We
include the creation, judgment, revision and reformulation of theories to conceptualize the
intellectual strategic process (Greaney, 2007).
Question in Phenomenological Research:-
A proposal of theoretical sensitivity of phenomenological research indicates that we
should add the all modes of phenomenological analysis. Suppose our question is, “What are
the similarities and effects of the size of tumor to the primary stage cancer?” The answers
could be highly significant, significant, insignificant and highly insignificant. The Likart
scale measure of qualitative data could be analyzed. The outcome of the result is identical as
per our expectation ideally.
New Approach of evidence based Joanna Briggs Model:-
The approach of Joanna Briggs Institute to evidence-based phenomenology is unique.
For appropriate, meaningful and effective practice of healthcare, we should expertise and

ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 9
professionally judge the data (Jordan et al. 2012). This evidence is collated and the results are
appraised, synthesized and transferred to service delivery settings (Giorgi 1997). To assist in
assigning systematic reviews, we would constitute research evidence for practice. It has
developed its own unique levels of evidence.

ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 10
Quantitative methods:-
Cohort Studies:-
Cohort study is a type of medical study research used to investigate the reasons
behind disease, establishing associations between risk factors and health outcomes. Cohort
study is “prospective” study planned and then carried out over future. This study is
observational as they simply observe what happens without applying any intervention.
The few identifications about cohort study is-
1. Cohort study is a usually prospective study that collect data going forward, rather
than retrospective cohort studies.
2. It type of study observes large group of individuals, recording their exposure to
defined risk factors to detect clues as to the possible reasons of disease.
When looking for the causes of disease, it would be unfair to expose participants to a
suspected risk factor. The prospective cohort study is observational rather than interventional.
As per example, we can say that Nurses’ Health Study is a large cohort study. It has
generated many crucial relations between lifestyle choices and health. Cohort studies could
find social factors that influence health. Any type of Nurses’ Health Study that runs
throughout a long period is a cohort study.
Cross-sectional Studies:-
A cross-sectional study in medical research is also known as prevalence study and
transversal study. In cross-sectional analysis, we analyze data collected from a population or
a sample at a specific point in time. It is often used to assess the prevalence of chronic and
acute diseases.

ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 11
Censuses are caused of disease or the results of intervention. Cross-sectional studies
may include spatial data analysis. However, the data collection could be moderately
expensive and may include bias.
Cross-sectional study typically involves regression model assuming magnitude of
causal effects as independent variables and given time point as dependent variable. Cross-
sectional studies are actually descriptive studies that do not take odds ratio, absolute risks,
relative risks and prevalence rate into account.
An Example of Nursing Question including PICO analysis:-
The PICO analysis is a technique that is used in frame and evidence based health related
problems. The PICO framework is used to enhance search strategies. The PICO stands for-
P = Population, I = Intervention, C = Comparison, O = Outcome.

ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 12
An example of PICO research in nursing is, Population is infection-acquired hospital.
It is nothing but cross infection. Intervention is hand washing and hand disinfectant.
Comparison is no hand washing and use of masks. The outcome is reduced infection.
The PICO analysis depends on responses collected from some questions. Such as-
1. Does hand cleaning among healthcare workers decrease hospital acquired
infections?
Answers: Hand washing with the help of disinfectant or Cross infection due to
hospital acquired infection.
2. What is the effectiveness of regular passive motion therapy following knee
replacement?
Answers: CPM theory that includes arthroplasty or knee replacement using
continuous passive motion therapy.
3. Is the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia lowered by a higher nurse-
patient ratio?
Answers: Ventilator associated pneumonia or Personnel staffing and scheduling.
4. What is the effect of restraints in decreasing the occurrence of falls?
Answers: Accidental falls or Physical restraint.
5. How do universal lunch programs affect childhood obesity rates?
Answers: Universal lunch of food services and school lunch or childhood obesity.
6. Is it an evidence-based article on managing acute pain in sickle cell patients?
Answers: Therapy of pain of anemia or sickle cell.

ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 13
Double Blinding:-
A double-blind study is such type of study in which neither the participants nor the
experiments are aware of who is receiving a defined treatment. This method is used to
prevent bias in research results that causes due to demand characteristics.
In such studies, researchers might use a placebo that is an inert substance such as
sugar pill. A placebo is used to assign randomly to the control group or an experimental
group. A control group is a subset of participants who are not exposed to any levels of the
independent variable. In case of clinical trial method, double-blind indicates that the
participants and the experimenters are aware of who is receiving the true treatment. When
placebo groups are not sufficient to avoid experimental bias, then double-blind experiments
are generally preferred. In this case, neither the experimenters nor the subjects are aware of
subject’s group status. This eliminates the probability that the experimenters will treat the
placebo group differently from treatment group further decreasing the experimental bias.
As an example, the researchers are investigating the effects of a newly launched drug.
In a double-blind study, the researchers who communicate with the participants would know
who were having the actual drug.
Control:-
In case of design of experiments, control is a crucial effect and when it is neglected, it
may cause experimental bias. We can elaborate the effect of control by following example-
Suppose a farmer attempts to evaluate a new fertilizer. He uses the new fertilizer on
one field of crops (X), while uses his old fertilizer on another field of crops (Y). The
irrigation system on field X has recently been repaired and provides adequate water to all the
crops, while the system on field Y would not be repaired until next season. He draws the
inference that the new fertilizer is far superior. The problem with this experiment is that the

ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 14
farmer has neglected to control the effect of the differences in irrigation. It leads to
experimental bias (Zhang 2013).
Local control is a technique to reduce experimental error by making the experiment
more efficient. In this method, treatments should be applied uniformly and under
standardized conditions.
Reliability and Validity (data collection instruments):-
Reliability is the degree to which an assessment tool generates consistent and stable
results. Different types of reliability in data collection instruments are observed such as- Test-
retest reliability, Parallel forms reliability, Inter-rater reliability and Internal-consistency
reliability.
Validity indicates how good a test measures what is purported to measure. Various
types of validity in data collection instruments are observed such as- Face validity, Construct
validity, Criterion-Related validity, Formative validity and Sampling validity.
These two terms reliability and validity are often used interchangeably for statistical
and experimental method. Reliability indicates the consistency of behavior of data. However,
reliability and validity are independent of each other. Two major indicators of data
management quality are reliability and validity. The method of developing and validating an
instrument is in large part focused on reducing error in the measurement process. Estimates
of reliability evaluate the stability of measures, internal consistency of measurement
instruments and reliability of instrument scores (Desrosiers et al.1995). Validity is an extent
to which the interpretations of the results of a test are warranted that depends on the particular
use the test is intended to serve.

ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 15
Many issues may affect the accuracy of data collected, such as those related to self-
report and secondary data sources. These are particularly subject to the problems with social
desirable biases. Using valid and reliable tests or instruments, we could measure such
contrasts which are an important component of research quality.
Descriptive Statistics:-
Descriptive statistic is used to describe the fundamental properties and features of the
data. The measures are like frequencies, mean, median, mode, standard deviation, range,
skewness and kurtosis. They provide simple summaries about sample and the measures. It is
a primary step to calculate descriptive statistics of quantitative data analysis (Denzin and
Lincoln 2008). It gives the idea of true scenario of central tendency and dispersion of a
sample or a population. In exploratory data analysis, descriptive statistics is also known as
summary statistics (Strauss and Corbin 1994).
Frequencies Frequency is the number of occurrences of repeating values in the dataset.
Different types of values and their count of repeating is measured as frequencies.
Mean In statistics and probability, mean or expected value of a population characterizes the
measure of probability distribution of the random variable. The mean or arithmetic mean is
the sampled average referred to a central value of discrete numbers.
Median The median is the value separating the higher half of a sample, probability
distribution or population from the lower half. For the data set, it is labeled as “middle most”
value. For discrete dataset of frequency n, the [(n+1)/2]th value (when n is odd) and mean of
(n/2)th and (n/2+1)th value (when n is even) is treated as median of the dataset. For
continuous probability distribution, the median is the value such that a number is equally
likely to fall above or below it.

ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 16
Mode The mode of a dataset is a value that appears most often in frequency count of the
data. Mode is the value at which its probability mass function (p.m.f) takes its maximum
values. Simply it is the value that is most likely to be sampled (Oja 1983). Like mean and
median, it is also a measure of central tendency. A mode of a continuous probability
distribution is often considered to be any value y at which probability density function has a
locally maximum value.
Standard deviation In statistics, standard deviation is used as a measure to quantify the
amount of variation and dispersion of a set of data values. A low standard deviation indicates
that data points are close to mean (more central tendency and less scatterness of the values)
and high standard deviation indicates that data points are far from mean (less central tendency
and more scatterness of the values). The standard deviation of a random variable, population,
data set or probability distribution is the square root of variance and it is algebraically robust
in nature (Smith 2015).
Why t-test is used:-
A t-test is used in the analysis to analyze two population means with statistical
hypotheses. A t-test with two samples is generally used with small sample sizes, testing the
difference between the samples when the variances of two normal distributions are unknown.
A paired t-test is used for two samples and for three or more variables ANOVA must be used.
Why chi-square test is used:-
Chi-square test is mainly used to prove independence (Rice 1989). The test is applied
when we have two categorical variables from a single population. It is applied to determine
whether there is a significant association between the two variables is present or not. The
large size of sample gives a good result to this test.

ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 17
Meaning of p-value:-
In statistical hypothesis testing, the p-value (probability value) is the probability for a
determined statistical model when the null hypothesis (H0) is true. The p-value is used in the
context of H0 testing in order to quantify the concept of statistical significance of evidence.
A small p-value (<= 0.05 at 95% C.I.) indicates strong evidence against H0, therefore
we can reject the null hypothesis. A large p-value (=> 0.05 at 95% C.I.) indicates weak
evidence against null hypothesis (Strauss 1997). Therefore, we fail to reject null hypothesis.
For example, if t-test of two samples of boys’ and girls’ weights gives the p-value 0.04
against the null hypothesis of equal mean weight, then we can reject the null hypothesis at
95% C.I. We conclude that mean weights of boys’ and girls’ are not equal according to the
calculated p-value.
Conduction of evidence-based RCT by Joanna Briggs:-
On the Joanna Briggs Hierarchy of Evidence, we observe the level of the evidences.
1. It considers international evidence related to the feasibility, appropriateness,
meaningfulness and effectiveness of healthcare interventions.
2. It includes different forms of evidence in a formal assessment called systematic
review of evidence synthesis.
3. In clinical trial, globally disseminates information in appropriate, relevant formats
to inform health system, health professionals and consumers of evidence transfer.
4. We have to design programs to enable the effective evidence based
implementation and evaluation of its impact on health care practice.

ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 18
The pyramid process of JBI model based on evidence of RCT

ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 19
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ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 20
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