Research Methods

This document discusses the importance of ethical considerations in academic research and provides examples of ethical issues faced by researchers. It also explores different research methods and data analysis techniques. The document emphasizes the need to maintain confidentiality and follow ethical code of conduct in research.

Running head: RESEARCH METHODS
Research Methods
Name of the University:
Name of the Student:
Authors Note:

1RESEARCH METHODS
Table of Contents
Assignment 1...................................................................................................................................2
Assignment 2...................................................................................................................................6
Task 1...........................................................................................................................................6
Task 2.........................................................................................................................................23
Task 3.........................................................................................................................................25
References......................................................................................................................................28

2RESEARCH METHODS
Assignment 1
Ethics are considered to be moral principles that must be followed by the researchers
while carrying out a study and while carrying out a researchers behaving in an ethical manner
involves conducting the right thing at the right time through following oral principles in the field
of research. Ethical decision in the academic research process is centred on offering maximum
benefits to the participants and following the ethical principles is vital in maintenance of the
research integrity (Adams and Lawrence 2018). Importance of abiding by the ethical principles
in a research is indicated through evaluating the given case study scenario where a research is
carried out for a company where the researchers works analysing the reasons for which they are
not studied with their jobs. Ethical decision in the academic research process is centred on
offering maximum benefits to the participants and following the ethical principles is vital in
maintenance of the research integrity. From the case study it has been revealed that there is a
general mistrust feeling within the company causing increased job dissatisfaction level. Another
issue that is revealed from the given scenario that while participating in the questionnaire survey
the respondents have very less idea regarding the research and have co-opted to it with less
choice or have volunteered for the questionnaire in order to appease the managing director of the
company (Bell, Bryman and Harley 2018). The respondents that participated in the research are
also observed to hesitate to openly provide opinions on the subject. The managing director was
observed to be keen to view the research results and for this reason he secretly number each
questionnaire so that it can identify them by name. Such issue is considered to violate the ethical
code of conduct of maintaining the confidentiality of the researchers.

3RESEARCH METHODS
The researcher must consider following ethical code of conduct in dealing with such
ethical concern of maintaining confidentiality if the respondents (Bryman 2016). The researcher
must also consider maintaining ethical behaviour while carrying out the questionnaire survey
through accumulating data from most reliable sources along with the human resources.
Following proper code of conduct is considered necessary in performing all the steps of the
questionnaire survey. Moreover, the researcher must also avoid asking delicate questions in the
survey and must also seek mutual permission or consent from the participants before persuading
them to take part in the survey (George and Mallery 2016). Moreover, observing the case study
scenario where the employees were forced to take part in the survey without taking consent from
them. Conversely, the researcher must also focus on maintaining the identity of the respondents
confidential that must be disclosed for sanctuary reasons within which so such business use of
the research statement must be considered by the researcher.
The ethical issues that are revealed to be faced in the given scenario is regarding non-
maintenance of the confidentiality of the survey participants and the participants were also not
educated regarding the implications of the survey along with the knowledge regarding the
research and the survey process along with the importance of their opinion for the organisation in
which they work (Gravetter and Wallnau 2016). Considering such issues faced by the researcher
in the provided scenario, certain codes of conduct related to the research and survey process is
decided it be followed that can support “acting and behaving ethically” by the researcher and
other participating members of the organisation. Ethical issues and related ethical code of
conducts that is considered necessary to be considered in the current hypothetical scenario are
indicated below:

4RESEARCH METHODS
 Informed consent- Informed consent is also major ethical concern faced in carrying out
the research survey that must consider a person knowingly and voluntarily as well as a
clear manner offers informed consent (Hartas 2015). In following the code of informed
consent the researcher must ensure that the survey participants gather enough knowledge
regarding the implications of the research along with the reasons for which their
participant is important in the research and the questionnaire survey process. Informed
consent and mutual permission form must be provided by the researchers to the targeted
participants in the given scenario the employees of the company must be educated
regarding the usefulness of the research findings (Holcomb 2016). It is important to
explain any discomfort, privacy invasion along with the threat to dignity along with the
ways the subjects are being compensated. The researcher must also take into account that
the survey participants with physical, cultural and emotional barriers might need a simple
language to understand the useful implications of the study. Another important ethical
concern that must be considered by the researcher in carrying out questionnaire survey.
 Benefiance-Do Not Harm- Human subjects protection is another ethical code of conduct
that is needed to be followed by the researcher where he must focus on decreasing harms
and risks along with increasing the research benefits (Khan 2016). Moreover, the research
must also consider following ethical code of conduct by the researcher in the form of
respecting human dignity, privacy as well as autonomy along with striving distributing
the advantages and burdens of the research in a fair manner.
 Respect for Privacy- In this ethical code of conduct within research, the researcher must
recognise protecting the confidential communications like the survey papers ad grants

5RESEARCH METHODS
that is recognised to be submitted for personal records, publication along with the
business secrets (Kim, Sefcik and Bradway 2017).
 Researchers Skills- The researcher must have the competency along with having
knowledge of worthwhile expected research outcomes. In the given scenario, the person
responsible for conducting the survey with the employees along with the managing
director of the company must attain necessary skills and knowledge regarding the subject
of research so that the researcher can make a careful choice of data collection measuring
the validity and reliability of the survey findings (Kim, Rolf and Bradway 2018).
 Protection of Integrity- In observing the given scenario it has been gathered that there
exists mistrust among the survey participants because of which they feel hesitated to
participate in the survey process. In increasing trust among them along with making them
informed about the usefulness of their participation in the research process, the researcher
must consider following the research ethical code of conduct considering “protection of
integrity”. In this ethical consideration within the quantitative research process the
researcher must take into account certain initiatives in preventing any type of unworthy
conditions in quantitative survey process in the form of scientific misconduct along with
academic dishonesty (Liu 2019). Such ethical norms to be followed in survey data
collection process must include issues like requirements for honesty, informed consent,
anonymisation along with data storage that can facilitate in determining the difference
among acceptable and unacceptable behaviours.
 Deception is another ethical issue that is recognised in the scenario of the given
organisation where the deception can involve intentional misrepresentation of the facts
related with nature or the research consequences as the managing director of the company

6RESEARCH METHODS
is observed to be involved in such unethical research conduct (McIntosh and Morse
2015). In dealing with such ethical consideration training the research participants in the
group communication is important where an increased extent of self-disclosure is
necessary. The managing director along with the employees of the company must be
involved in the process of self-disclosure where they are encouraged in freely discussing
regarding their feelings, attitudes along with experiences in the workplaces that affect
their satisfaction level in the company (Miller 2018).
Assignment 2
Task 1
Based on the given situation of ABC Company that has developed questionnaire to
analyse the employee satisfaction level in the company, both quantitative and qualitative data
analysis methods can be used based on the structured organisation in the marketplace. One of the
most commonly employed quantitative data analysis methods is descriptive analysis that is
carried out in analysing the data gathered on employee satisfaction within the company (Roberts
2015). The data analysed is represented in the tables and charts below that can simply facilitate
in understanding the major issues identified from the dada analysis findings.
Column1 Column2 Column3
Mean
2.3666666
67 Mean
2.1666666
67 Mean 35.6
Standard Error
0.2647199
05 Standard Error
0.1862104
44 Standard Error
2.2664
98
Median 2 Median 2 Median 36.5

7RESEARCH METHODS
Mode 2 Mode 1 Mode 41
Standard Deviation
1.4499306
36 Standard Deviation
1.0199166
07 Standard Deviation
12.414
12
Sample Variance
2.1022988
51 Sample Variance
1.0402298
85 Sample Variance
154.11
03
Kurtosis
-
0.5532204
45 Kurtosis
-
1.1120626
88 Kurtosis
-
0.3947
6
Skewness
0.9024717
51 Skewness
0.2708487
07 Skewness
0.5575
82
Range 4 Range 3 Range 45
Minimum 1 Minimum 1 Minimum 18
Maximum 5 Maximum 4 Maximum 63
Sum 71 Sum 65 Sum 1068
Count 30 Count 30 Count 30
Confidence
Level(95.0%)
0.5414129
89
Confidence
Level(95.0%)
0.3808431
14
Confidence
Level(95.0%)
4.6355
08
Column4 Column5 Column6
Mean 2 Mean
2.1666
67 Mean
2.8333333
33
Standard Error 0.2348 Standard Error 0.2352 Standard Error 0.2352955

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88 96 26
Median 1.5 Median 2 Median 3
Mode 1 Mode 1 Mode 3
Standard Deviation
1.2865
35 Standard Deviation
1.2887
67 Standard Deviation
1.2887666
74
Sample Variance
1.6551
72 Sample Variance
1.6609
2 Sample Variance
1.6609195
4
Kurtosis
0.1929
98 Kurtosis
-
0.2963
3 Kurtosis
-
0.7883834
18
Skewness
1.1451
02 Skewness
0.9109
48 Skewness
0.1246559
98
Range 4 Range 4 Range 4
Minimum 1 Minimum 1 Minimum 1
Maximum 5 Maximum 5 Maximum 5
Sum 60 Sum 65 Sum 85
Count 30 Count 30 Count 30
Confidence
Level(95.0%) 0.4804
Confidence
Level(95.0%)
0.4812
33
Confidence
Level(95.0%)
0.4812333
78
Column7 Column8 Column9
Mean 2.1 Mean 1.8 Mean
2.0333333
33
Standard Error 0.2109 Standard Error 0.2 Standard Error 0.2273451

9RESEARCH METHODS
09 64
Median 2 Median 2 Median 2
Mode 1 Mode 1 Mode 1
Standard Deviation
1.1551
98 Standard Deviation
1.0954
45 Standard Deviation
1.2452207
49
Sample Variance
1.3344
83 Sample Variance 1.2 Sample Variance
1.5505747
13
Kurtosis
-
1.2380
4 Kurtosis
3.7000
55 Kurtosis
-
0.2820865
74
Skewness
0.5119
14 Skewness
1.9426
61 Skewness
0.5071173
52
Range 3 Range 4 Range 5
Minimum 1 Minimum 1 Minimum 0
Maximum 4 Maximum 5 Maximum 5
Sum 63 Sum 54 Sum 61
Count 30 Count 30 Count 30
Confidence
Level(95.0%)
0.4313
58
Confidence
Level(95.0%)
0.4090
46
Confidence
Level(95.0%)
0.4649730
62
Column10 Column11 Column12
Mean
2.23333
3 Mean
2.23333
3 Mean 2.37931
Standard Error 0.23333 Standard Error 0.18372 Standard Error 0.19484

10RESEARCH METHODS
3 5 6
Median 2 Median 2 Median 2
Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 2
Standard Deviation
1.27801
9 Standard Deviation
1.00630
2 Standard Deviation
1.04927
8
Sample Variance
1.63333
3 Sample Variance
1.01264
4 Sample Variance
1.10098
5
Kurtosis -0.42739 Kurtosis -0.85834 Kurtosis -0.02767
Skewness
0.80464
4 Skewness
0.36481
6 Skewness
0.54249
4
Range 4 Range 3 Range 4
Minimum 1 Minimum 1 Minimum 1
Maximum 5 Maximum 4 Maximum 5
Sum 67 Sum 67 Sum 69
Count 30 Count 30 Count 29
Confidence
Level(95.0%) 0.47722
Confidence
Level(95.0%)
0.37575
9
Confidence
Level(95.0%)
0.39912
4
Column13 Column14
Mean 3.1 Mean 2.37037
Standard Error
0.14660
9 Standard Error
0.19354
4
Median 3 Median 2
Mode 3 Mode 2

11RESEARCH METHODS
Standard Deviation
0.80301
2 Standard Deviation
1.00568
2
Sample Variance
0.64482
8 Sample Variance
1.01139
6
Kurtosis
0.06305
4 Kurtosis -0.97347
Skewness -0.61647 Skewness
0.13926
5
Range 3 Range 3
Minimum 1 Minimum 1
Maximum 4 Maximum 4
Sum 93 Sum 64
Count 30 Count 27
Confidence
Level(95.0%)
0.29984
9
Confidence
Level(95.0%)
0.39783
4

12RESEARCH METHODS
Mean
Standard Error
Median
Mode
Standard Deviation
Sample Variance
Kurtosis
Skewness
Range
Minimum
Maximum
Sum
Count
Confidence Level(95.0%)
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Series1
Figure 1: Results for Employee Tenacity in ABC Company
(Source: Authors Creation)
From the data analysis results it has been revealed that most of the participants in the
survey process stated that they are associated with the company for over one year. Conversely,
few employees are associated with the company for over five years. In addition, the results also
revealed that there is 0.54 percent significance under 95% confidence level with the dependent
variable of recommending the company to other employees which indicates the results are
statistically insignificant and employees are a bit unsatisfied with the workplace surrounding.

13RESEARCH METHODS
Mean
Standard Error
Median
Mode
Standard Deviation
Sample Variance
Kurtosis
Skewness
Range
Minimum
Maximum
Sum
Count
Confidence Level(95.0%)
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Series1
Figure 2: Results for Employee Job Grade in ABC Company
(Source: Authors Creation)
The results indicate that the confidence level is 0.38 at 95% significance level which
indicates that most of the employees in the company belong to the non-management level. The
results also indicated that most of the employees in the non-management level are satisfied with
the workplace environment and considers recommending the company to others.

14RESEARCH METHODS
Mean
Standard Error
Median
Mode
Standard Deviation
Sample Variance
Kurtosis
Skewness
Range
Minimum
Maximum
Sum
Count
Confidence Level(95.0%)
-200
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Series1
Figure 3: Results for Employee Age when Completing Job Grade in ABC Company
(Source: Authors Creation)
The results indicate the confidence value of 4.63 at 95% confidence level which indicates
that the results are statistically insignificant. In addition, the age group of most employees belong
to 30 to 40 years. The results also indicate that age of the employees do not impact satisfaction
level of the employees.

15RESEARCH METHODS
Mean
Standard Error
Median
Mode
Standard Deviation
Sample Variance
Kurtosis
Skewness
Range
Minimum
Maximum
Sum
Count
Confidence Level(95.0%)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Series1
Figure 4: Results for Employee Sense of Work Accomplishment in ABC Company
(Source: Authors Creation)
The results revealed that the confidence level is 0.48 at 95% confidence level which
signifies statistically significant results where, the respondents stated their sense of
accomplishment at work impact their satisfaction level in the company.
Mean
Standard Error
Median
Mode
Standard Deviation
Sample Variance
Kurtosis
Skewness
Range
Minimum
Maximum
Sum
Count
Confidence Level(95.0%)
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Series1

16RESEARCH METHODS
Figure 5: Results for Employee Value in ABC Company
(Source: Authors Creation)
The results indicated that the confidence level is 0.48 at 95% confidence level which
indicates statistically significant results. Such results also indicate that feeling valued member of
the company positively impacts the satisfaction level of the employees in the company.
Mean
Standard Error
Median
Mode
Standard Deviation
Sample Variance
Kurtosis
Skewness
Range
Minimum
Maximum
Sum
Count
Confidence Level(95.0%)-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Series1
Figure 6: Results for Employee Remuneration Packages in ABC Company
(Source: Authors Creation)
The data analysis findings revealed that the confidence level is 0.48 at 95% of
significance level that indicates results to be statistically significant. Such results indicate that in
a situation where the employees are paid with suitable remuneration packages as per the role
assigned to them it positively impacts their satisfaction level within the organisation.

17RESEARCH METHODS
Mean
Standard Error
Median
Mode
Standard Deviation
Sample Variance
Kurtosis
Skewness
Range
Minimum
Maximum
Sum
Count
Confidence Level(95.0%)
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Series1
Figure 7: Results for Employee Benefit for Family Needs in ABC Company
(Source: Authors Creation)
The data analysis results indicated confidence level of 0.43 at 95% significance level
signifying statistically significant result. The findings also revealed that the benefits attained by
the employees in addressing their individual and family needs positively impact the satisfaction
level of employees in the company.

18RESEARCH METHODS
Mean
Standard Error
Median
Mode
Standard Deviation
Sample Variance
Kurtosis
Skewness
Range
Minimum
Maximum
Sum
Count
Confidence Level(95.0%)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Series1
Figure 8: Results for Employee Benefit Program in ABC Company
(Source: Authors Creation)
The findings from data analysis revealed confidence level of 0.40 at 95% significance
level which signifies statistically significant results. Such results signified that the benefit
programs offered by the organisation positively impacts on the employees’ decision to stay for
longer years in the company.

19RESEARCH METHODS
Mean
Standard Error
Median
Mode
Standard Deviation
Sample Variance
Kurtosis
Skewness
Range
Minimum
Maximum
Sum
Count
Confidence Level(95.0%)
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Series1
Figure 9: Results for Employee Rewards and Recognition in ABC Company
(Source: Authors Creation)
From evaluating the findings of the data analysis it has been signified the confidence
level of 0.46 at 95% level of confidence which signifies statistically significant results. Such
findings indicate that in a situation where the employees attain adequate recognition beyond pay
for the contributions as well as accomplishments it can positively encourage the employees of
the company to stay satisfied with the workplace environment.

20RESEARCH METHODS
Mean
Standard Error
Median
Mode
Standard Deviation
Sample Variance
Kurtosis
Skewness
Range
Minimum
Maximum
Sum
Count
Confidence Level(95.0%)
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Series1
Figure 10: Results for Employee Training in ABC Company
(Source: Authors Creation)
The data analysis findings revealed the confidence level of 0.47 at the significance level
of 95%. Such findings from the data analysis revealed that in a situation where the employees
attain adequate training to perform their job are highly satisfied with the workplace environment
in the company and are recognised to recommend the company to others.

21RESEARCH METHODS
Mean
Standard Error
Median
Mode
Standard Deviation
Sample Variance
Kurtosis
Skewness
Range
Minimum
Maximum
Sum
Count
Confidence Level(95.0%)
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Series1
Figure 11: Results for Employees Attaining Necessary Training and Development in ABC
Company
(Source: Authors Creation)
The findings of the data analysis revealed confidence level of 0.37 at the 95% level of
significance which is statistically significant. This data analysis finding signifies that ABC
supports the training and development of all its employees that positively impacts the satisfaction
level of the employees in the company.

22RESEARCH METHODS
Mean
Standard Error
Median
Mode
Standard Deviation
Sample Variance
Kurtosis
Skewness
Range
Minimum
Maximum
Sum
Count
Confidence Level(95.0%)
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Series1
Figure 12: Results for Employee Respect in ABC Company
(Source: Authors Creation)
The data analysis results indicated the level of confidence with value 0.39 at the 95%
level of significance which signifies statistically significant results. Such findings revealed that
in a situation where the employees feel respected at workplace they tend to be highly satisfied
with their job in the company.

23RESEARCH METHODS
Mean
Standard Error
Median
Mode
Standard Deviation
Sample Variance
Kurtosis
Skewness
Range
Minimum
Maximum
Sum
Count
Confidence Level(95.0%)
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
Series1
Figure 13: Results for Employee Respect and Job Satisfaction in ABC Company
(Source: Authors Creation)
The findings gathered from analysing the data revealed confidence level value of 0.29 at
the significance level of 95% which indicates statistically significant findings. The results
signified that respect serves as an important factor that positively impacts their jobs satisfaction
of the employees in the workplace within the ABC Company.

24RESEARCH METHODS
Mean
Standard Error
Median
Mode
Standard Deviation
Sample Variance
Kurtosis
Skewness
Range
Minimum
Maximum
Sum
Count
Confidence Level(95.0%)
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Series1
Figure 14: Results for Employee Commitment in Ensuring Success for ABC Company
(Source: Authors Creation)
The results from the data analysis revealed the confidence level value of 0.39 at 0.95
level of confidence which indicates statistically significant results. Such findings also reveal that
if the employees feel the commitment to stay attached with the company, they are likely to
recommend the company to others.
Task 2
Semi-structured interviews are considered to be the suitable means for collecting as well
as analysing the qualitative data. The researchers considers using semi-structured interviews as it
facilitates in gathering most relevant qualitative data through allowing the respondents with
increased freedom to express their opinions in their own terms. This type of interviews is suitable
in collecting reliable and comparable qualitative data (Bell, Bryman and Harley 2018). As it
includes more open-ended questions it allows a detailed discussion regarding the asked questions
which provides an elaborated view of the respondents on the issues. This process also allows a

25RESEARCH METHODS
clear set of instructions for the interviews and can further offer reliable, comparable and
qualitative data for its analysis. It can also serve as an effective way in gathering concerns along
with perceptions of a group and it also facilitates in effectively developing, conducting,
transcribing as well as analysing the semi-structured interview for a research. For instance,
asking pen ended questions in semi-structured interviews such as “what are your feeling about
your work?” and “what are the positive and negative impacts of your work on your career
development?” can gather detailed data for the researches it keeps the interaction focussed on
major domains and questions can be probed in order to collect as much data as possible (Bell,
Bryman and Harley 2018).
This method is also likely to be highly appropriate sampling strategy that also facilitates
in analysing and representing relevant data. Data collected through the semi-structured
interviews is likely to be highly generalizable as they are well sampled and gathered through this
interview technique. This interview based data collection method gathered most reliable data as
it takes into consideration large samples considered for the data collection process which can be
generalised to a larger population (Bell, Bryman and Harley 2018). Semi-structured interview
serves as an effective sampling strategy for a qualitative research as it explains the changing role
of actors with transitional care with time. Semi-structured interview also referred as most
justified sampling technique in any qualitative research for the reason that it considers selection
of the participants that can provide research issues based relevant opinions, statements along
with convictions along with can also elicit narratives on theory personal experiences. For
instance, in the case of ABC Company, the employees working within the company were
selected for the semi-structured interviews as they are considered to be most suitable respondents

26RESEARCH METHODS
that can elaborate on the research issues regarding the factors that are affecting their job
satisfaction in the workplace (Bell, Bryman and Harley 2018).
The data gathered through the semi-structured interviews is analysed through thematic
analysis that considers identifying important themes within each group along with also showing
thematic links among them. Thematic analysis likely to be the key for attaining relevant insights
from the semi-structured interviews. For instance, certain data analysis techniques for the semi-
structured interviews are also observed to include techniques for synthesising qualitative data by
means of coding into a structured thematic analysis (Adams and Lawrence 2018). Coding and
categorising the data collected through semi-structured interviews can be referred as effective
qualitative data analysis approach in which the first step is segmenting the data into codes which
requires close data interrogation. The analysed data is represented in the form of transcripts that
indicates re-reading them for recognising important research themes and then the final step is to
establish relationships conceptually through representing a hierarchy of categories as well as sub-
categories. The subsequent data from the semi-structured interviews can be written through
reviewing the interview responses along with the observational data for revealing important
patterns and insights (Adams and Lawrence 2018). Open-ended questions in this interview based
data collection technique focuses on attaining lengthy and descriptive answers in comparison to
the close-ended questions.
Task 3
There is a great impact if the sampling and non-sampling errors on the successful
interpretation of the research findings. Sampling error can be understood as an error that takes
place in the data collection process for the reason that the sample is gathered from a population
rather than using the overall population. Sampling error takes place in research because of two

27RESEARCH METHODS
likely reasons that includes difference between the population parameter estimates along with the
real but known parameter of the population (Adams and Lawrence 2018). Another reason for
such error is non-sampling error and in case the sampling process has non-sampling error which
anticipates from distinct random samples will be different from sample to sample. In such
situation all the estimates are likely to be distinct from the value of the population parameter.
Sampling error for any provided sample is likely to be unknown but in case the sampling is quite
random for certain estimates where the theoretical methods can be employed in measuring the
extent of such variation resulted out from the sampling error. Sampling error can cause
systematic error in the research findings where the results from the sample differ considerably
from the results of the overall population (Adams and Lawrence 2018). This sampling error in a
research also follows the logic that in case the sample is not a representative of the overall
population, the results from it are likely to be different in comparison to the results gathered from
the overall population.
On the other hand, non-sampling error is observed to take place in a data collection
process because of several factors other than considering a sample. Non-sampling errors have the
likability to cause bias in polls, samples as well as surveys. There are several types of non-
sampling errors that are considered to be greatly useful; however, the reasons for the cases of
non-sampling errors are poor sampling method, questionnaire or the measurement error and
certain behavioural effects (McIntosh and Morse 2015). For this reason, suitable approaches
must be followed in mitigating such errors for ensuring valid and reliable research findings. Non-
sampling errors can result in several issues in the coverage, response, non-response, data
processing, evaluation and data analysis. Due to the non-sampling errors the scrutiny of the data
might not be adequate because of which the coding as well as tabulation of data might not be

28RESEARCH METHODS
erroneous. This type of error can also result in issues related with presentation and representation
of the tabulated graphs and tables.
Sampling errors can be decreased in the research by means of employing certain methods
that includes increasing the sample size and also through stratification (McIntosh and Morse
2015). The sampling error can be decreased to a great extent through increasing the sampling
size. For instance, if the sample size is n is equal to the population size N, then the sampling
error can turn out to be zero. In addition, the technique of randomisation as well as probability
sampling is considered to decrease the error related with the sampling process but is still possible
that all the randomised subjects will not be the representative of the population. Non-sampling
errors can be minimised through admiring selection in order to eliminate the bias in which the
researcher can consider choosing participants relied on a random factor, for instance, selecting
every fourth person on the list (McIntosh and Morse 2015). Training the team is another measure
that can decrease the non-sampling error in which if the study is carried out by a researcher, he
should be trained properly to train the team regarding the data collection procedure. Carrying out
external records checking as human error takes place in entering the relevant data and in such
situation employing an external source in checking the records can also confirm the written
results consistency. Application of the quality design principles are likely necessary in
development of the instrument as well as instructions for the data collection (McIntosh and
Morse 2015).

29RESEARCH METHODS
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30RESEARCH METHODS
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