Education in Communist China

This book provides an in-depth analysis of the educational system in Communist China, focusing on the challenges faced in implementing new policies. It explores the Cultural Revolution and its impact on education, as well as the obstacles hindering reform. The book also discusses the role of traditional ideologies, language barriers, and the influence of the family structure. Written by R.F. Price, this book offers valuable insights into the complexities of education in Communist China.

ROUTLEDGE LIBRARY EDITIONS:
EDUCATION IN ASIA
Volume 8
EDUCATION IN
COMMUNIST CHINA

EDUCATION IN
COMMUNIST CHINA
R. F. PRICE

First published in 1970 by Routledge & Kegan Paul Limited
Revised and reprinted 1975
This edition first published in 2018
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© 1970, 1975 R. F. Price
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Education in Communist China
R.F.PRICE
la\
~
London
ROUTLEDGE & KEGAN PAUL

First published in 1970
by Routledge f5 Kegan Paul Limited
Broadway House, 68-74 Carter Lane
London EC4V 5EL
Revisedand reprinted 1975
Printed in Great Britain by
Unwin Brothers Limited
The Gresham Press, Old Woking, Surrey
A member of the Staples Printing Group
© R. F. Price, 1970, 1975
No part of this book may be reproduced
in any form without permissionfrom
the publisher, exceptfor the quotation
of brief passages in criticism
ISBN o 7100 8133 2

To Erika

Contents
World education series 1x
MAP OF CHINA: Provinces and main towns xu
General editor's introduction xm
fufure ~·
Abbreviations xix
l Educational aims and the thoughts of Mao Ze-dong l
The Cultural Revolution of I966 l
The Thoughts of Mao Ze-dong 4
Educationalpolicies, I949-I966 27
2 The Chinese tradition-background to Mao's thoughts 38
China's history 38
Traditionalphilosophy 40
Religion 61
Mao Ze-dong and the tradition 66
3 Obstacles to educational reform 68
Geographic and demographicfactors 68
Language problems 70
Administrativeand socialfactors 76
Family loyalties 82
Economicfactors 84
The influence of the pre-I949 school system and foreign
education 95
Educationalchange ro6
4 The full-time schools ro8
First level schools ro8
Secon:d level schools 127
Third level schools l4l
Foreign language teaching-a case study 172
vu

Contents
5 Part-time schools and classes 191
Spare-time education 191
Literacy campaigns 202
Part-work schools 211
6 The teachers 221
Quantity and quality 221
The Teachers' Union 226
Teacher education 227
Training outside the training school system 230
7 The moral-political educators 236
The Communist Party 236
The People's Liberation Army (the PLA) 239
The Youth League 245
The Young Pioneers 249
The Red Guards 252
The written and the spoken word 255
8 Education and the Cultural Revolution, 1966-1969 266
Wiry the students? 266
Making revolution 266
Criticizing the old 269
'Transforming'education 271
Selectionfor tertiary schooling 273
Conclusion 285
Bibliography 28 7
Books 287
k~~ 2~
Pamphlets 2 94
Further reading 2 95
Chronological table 297
Transcriptions 306
Map of language families and dialect groups 309
Glossary 3 10
Index 316
Vlll

World education series
The volumes in the World Education Series will treat national
systems of education and, where appropriate, features of different
systems within a particular region. These studies are intended to
meet the needs of students of comparative education in university
departments and schools of education and colleges of education and
will supplement the growing volume of literature in the field. They
may also appeal to a wider lay audience interested in education abroad.
As an area study of a national system each volume presents an
accurate, reasonably up-to-date account of the most important
features of the educational system described. Among these are the
ways in which the school system is controlled, financed and ad-
ministered. Some account is given of the various kinds of school
within the system and the characteristics of each of them. The
principles of curriculum organization and some aspects of teacher
education are outlined. Of more interest, however, is the analysis
which is made in each volume of the unique national characteristics
of an educational system, seen in the context of its history and the
sociological, economic and political factors which have in the past
and continue now to influence educational policy.
The assumption behind the series is, however, that common
socio-economic and educational problems find unique expression
in a particular country or region, and that a brief analysis of some
major national issues will reveal similarities and differences. Thus,
while in each case the interpretation of policies and practices is based
on the politics of education, the interpretative emphasis will vary
from one country to another.
The framework of analysis for each volume is consequently the
same, attention being drawn in the first section to the legal basis of
educational provision, followed in the second section by an analysis
of the political considerations which have and do influence the
formulation, adoption and implementation of policy. The role of
political parties is described where appropriate and the influence of
1X

World education series
the church or churches on policy examined. Attention too is given
to the activities of pressure groups at national, regional and local
levels. Changing industrial, urban and familial patterns are used to
show how educational needs are in process of change and what
difficulties arise when innovations are attempted. Again, each author
touches on the extent to which economic resources affect the
implementation of policy. The analysis relates principally to the
twenty-year period between 1945 and 1965 but relevant aspects of
the pre-Second World War period are described and the chains of
events are seen in historical perspective.
Finally, in the third section some accountis given of problems
which arise within the educational system itself. Those which appear
to the author of particular interest and importance have been
treated in some depth. Others have been referred to so that readers
may consult other sources of information if they wish. Broad
problem areas in education have, however, been identified. The
points of transition within a system between the first and second and
between the second and third stages of education give rise to
problems of selection and allocation. Under conditions of expansion,
created by explosions of population and aspirations, traditional
solutions are often thought to be no longer adequate. The attempts
made to meet these new situations are described.So too are the
relationships and debates about them, between the various types of
school at different levels of education. For example what are the
possibilities of transfer between academic, general and technical/
vocation schools at the second stage of education? And where these
different types have been replaced by some form of common or
comprehensive school what kinds of differentiation exist within the
single school ? At the third level of higher education what relation-
ships exist between institutions providing general education,
professional training and research opportunities? In some systems
a form of dual control is growing up with the universities retaining
much of their traditional autonomy and the technological institutes
and teacher education institutions increasingly feeling the influence
of government agencies. Again, after a process of differentiation in
course content in the first stage of higher education there is now a
tendency for the first year (or two) of college or university work to
be regarded as a preparatory year (or years) with common or some-
what similar courses of studies for all students.
x

World education series
Particular attention has been paid to the problems which arise in
the area of teacher education. Movements in most countries are in
the direction of bringing together the previously separate systems of
training for elementary and secondary school teachers. Common
entrance prerequisites to different training institutions may now be
required. Where this is not yet the case training colleges usually make
it possible for students to obtain, during the course of their studies,
a certificate which grants entry to the university and highest (in
prestige and status) forms of teacher education. The place of teacher
education in the structure of higher education is, in short, discussed
in each of the volumes. So are debates about curricular content and
methods of certification.
Finally, some attention is given to the interaction of the schools
and other social agencies. Among these the health services, youth
organizations, the family, the Church, industry and commerce have
been regarded as important. Where special note is not taken of such
institutions the impact they have in the schools is dealt with
throughout the volume as a whole.
The framework in short is intended to facilitate cross cultural
studies through the series as a whole. Basic educational legislation is
referred to in the belief that it gives the most reliable and valid
source of national goals or aims in education. The problems of
putting these into effective action are socio-economic-political and
educational. Comparisons can be made, therefore, between the
aims of education as expressed in national legislation and between
the main factors which inhibit or facilitate practical provisions in
accordance with these aims.
XI
BRIAN HOLMES
General Editor

600Km
400Ml
\) s s ~
Xjnjiang
~
<>.,..,
"1
<!;~ I><1
<
Provinces and main towns
(in hanyu pinyin transcription)
Xizang
(Tibet)
Wnl~muqi
(Uri.Jmchi)
MONGOLIA
A Cent;.~lly .$overned
\Ji m1:-lmupality
" University
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College (4-yr) 1959

General editor's introduction
The educational system of ancient China had as its principal aim the
selection and training of civil servants. The content of instruction
was based to a very considerable extent on the classics, which were
subjected to careful literary analysis. Much had to be memorized
and attempts to moderate examinations as objectively as possible
restricted the kind of questions which could be asked to those which
could be marked satisfactorily. The social aims of the system of civil
service examinations were to restrict nepotism and to draw into the
Imperial service able young men from the villages.
The influence of this system in the educational systems of Europe
has been considerable. The civil service concours of France and the
competitive entrance examinations in England reflect this tradition.
The treatment of classical literature and its central position in the
· curriculum in European schools represent the same kind of approach
to education.
Against this background should be seen the efforts of the present
leaders of China to reform the school system. It would be a mistake
simply to assume that directives from a powerful central government
can be passed down through the system and implemented by teachers
in the classroom. The acceptance of an ideology does not mean that
practice will follow it automatically. Among the obstacles preventing
or slowing down reform should be counted traditional ideologies and
well established schools. The Communist government in China has
had to face a powerful heritage.
It was also faced with difficulties due to the size and diversity of
the country and its population. Communications, still rudimentary
in many areas, the variety of spoken languages, and the complica-
tions of the written language, continue to create problems for
implementing policy. The traditiona! family structure has also to be
taken into account when trying to explain the reasons for an
apparently slow rate of progress towards a system of schools more
closely in line with Communist theory.
Xlll

General Editor's Introduction
It should also be remembered that during their first decade of
power the Communist leaders had little time to formulate educa-
tional policy. During the last ten years more attention has been paid
to education. Among Party leaders and educationists opinion has
been divided. Radical and conservative pointsof view have been
strongly expressed as part of the Cultural Revolution. Mao's
contributions to these debates have been considerable. The practical
outcomes of them are, at the moment, matters of conjecture. One
thing is certain, however, the radical transformation of an old and
respected system of education will take many decadesof effort to
achieve.
Mr. Price is well qualified to analyse the educational implications
of the Cultural Revolution and the difficulties which face Mao in his
attempts to introduce new educational policies.The author spent
two years in Peking, teaching English, and had access to many
documents and sources of information extremely difficult to consult
outside China. His analysis of Mao's Thoughts on the nature of man,
society and knowledgeis against the philosophical assumptions of
the classical Chinese tradition. He shows how Communist govern-
ment educational policies have had to face the inertia of pre-World
War II schools strongly influenced by foreign practice. Inthe third
section of this volume Mr. Price gives detailed accounts of the full
and part-time systems of education.
Like other volumes in the World educationseries this book should
be regarded as a case study in the reform of education. In the case
of China the problems are particularly fascinating because so many
factors are involved in the analysis of tradition and change. Violent
changes have occurred in the political and economic spheres of
Chinese life under the Communist government. The power of the
cultural heritage is considerable. The energy and skill of the people
involved in the transformation of their society are well known. This
volume has been written at a crucial stage in the process. Education
may go in any of several directions. Readers will be in a good position
to judge what these possibilities are after reading Mr. Price's careful
and detailed study.
The audience for which this book is intended is wide. Compara-
tive educationists, students of education, teachers and interested
laymen should find it very useful and extremely readable. So little
is known of education in China, however, that it was felt desirable
XIV

General Editor's Introduction
to document this volume more fully than some of the others in the
series. As a result it should appeal to students in the field of Chinese
studies.
It admirably meets the aims of comparative education. Readers
will note, for example, that China faces similar problems of reform
to those which exist in Western Europe and the USSR. It also
reveals many facets of the problems which arise when selective
cultural borrowing is attempted. Finally some deeper understanding
of the processes of education may be gained from a careful reading
of the section which deals with the schools and part-time education.
The lay-out follows the usual pattern. The first section deals with
policy and the important debates going on; the next section analyses
the major obstacles to reform and the third section gives details of
schools, how they are organized, what kind of curricula are provided,
how they are financed, and how teachers are trained. The volume it
is hoped will be of general interest to educationists and will provoke
more studies into a fascinating system of education.
BRIAN HOLMES
xv

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