Strategies for Improving Open and Distance Learning Process for Student-Teacher Engagement in Developing Countries
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This presentation discusses strategies for improving open and distance learning process for student-teacher engagement in developing countries, with a focus on the National Open University of Nigeria. It explores the challenges faced in implementing open and distance learning, the theoretical frameworks of cognitive engagement and transactional distance, and the opportunities and strategies for improvement. The research methodology includes surveys, interviews, and direct observation.
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Strategies for Improving open and distance learning process for a Student-Teacher
engagement in Developing Countries:
(A case study of National Open University of Nigeria)
Student`s name
Institution
engagement in Developing Countries:
(A case study of National Open University of Nigeria)
Student`s name
Institution
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Abstract
The fundamental goal of open and distance learning education is to offer an education that
will be accessible anytime/anywhere for all categories of persons. The open and distance
learning is a technology-based learning and educators' pedagogical practice when using
technology could be influenced by their knowledge about their curriculum as well as their
capabilities to integrate ICT into teaching. it is obvious that technologies are being
developed at an ever-increasing rate and researches have shown that 95% of universities
which can accommodate the student more than 10,000 offers distance learning so that
students can learn from their homes using the internet. (Clerk and Mayer 2003). Open and
distance learning has been mostly used in developing countries like Nigeria as it is an all-
inclusive education process which caters for all and sundry.
Keywords: Open and Distance learning (ODL), Strategies and Engagement.
The fundamental goal of open and distance learning education is to offer an education that
will be accessible anytime/anywhere for all categories of persons. The open and distance
learning is a technology-based learning and educators' pedagogical practice when using
technology could be influenced by their knowledge about their curriculum as well as their
capabilities to integrate ICT into teaching. it is obvious that technologies are being
developed at an ever-increasing rate and researches have shown that 95% of universities
which can accommodate the student more than 10,000 offers distance learning so that
students can learn from their homes using the internet. (Clerk and Mayer 2003). Open and
distance learning has been mostly used in developing countries like Nigeria as it is an all-
inclusive education process which caters for all and sundry.
Keywords: Open and Distance learning (ODL), Strategies and Engagement.
Introduction
Open and Distance Learning is a learning environment in which various learning decisions
are made by the students rather than the teachers.
The students have decisions on what to learn, whether to learn or not, from whom to learn,
how to learn, what to do next after the decision and finally how to get access to learning
materials. (Barikor, 2003).
In Open and Distance learning, there is various freedom from traditional barriers of the
conventional system. As its name implies, Open connotes elimination of restrictions, barring
and creating the opportunity for studies for different calibre of people (Ibara, 2003).
This is characterized by the following things.
Learners and teachers or instructors are physically separated.
Educational organizing the instructional program.
Media/technology usage.
It can be Synchronous in a single to multiple or single to single environment where learning
process takes place in real time or Asynchronous and separated by distance and time – in
which learning process occurs at a given selected by the student and the learners will learn
on their own paces as compared to other students paces (Walter, 2002, Keegan 1996, Ojo
&Olakulehin, 2006).
Open and Distance Learning is a learning environment in which various learning decisions
are made by the students rather than the teachers.
The students have decisions on what to learn, whether to learn or not, from whom to learn,
how to learn, what to do next after the decision and finally how to get access to learning
materials. (Barikor, 2003).
In Open and Distance learning, there is various freedom from traditional barriers of the
conventional system. As its name implies, Open connotes elimination of restrictions, barring
and creating the opportunity for studies for different calibre of people (Ibara, 2003).
This is characterized by the following things.
Learners and teachers or instructors are physically separated.
Educational organizing the instructional program.
Media/technology usage.
It can be Synchronous in a single to multiple or single to single environment where learning
process takes place in real time or Asynchronous and separated by distance and time – in
which learning process occurs at a given selected by the student and the learners will learn
on their own paces as compared to other students paces (Walter, 2002, Keegan 1996, Ojo
&Olakulehin, 2006).
Introduction cont…
Distance Learning courses are increasing in higher education, studies have shown that students and
instructors, as well as students and students interactions, enhance education at a distance as it improves
attitudes, encourage earlier completion of course work, allows deep meaningful opportunities, increase
retentions and builds learning communities. (Anderson 2003, Trucker 2003, wills, 1995, Hillman, 1999).
Open and distance learning is a better means of supporting learners in the attainment of social, economic and
academic development. The high demand application of Open and distance learning is due to the new
innovations and the use of information communication technologies (ICT).
In the developing countries, for instance, Nigeria where there is a high level of ICT illiterates, then the issues
of ODL are increasing.
ICT literates should use their new skills to educate those who are ICT illiterates so that they can gain
knowledge to be used in ODL process.
Also, the challenge may occur on the sides of literates during the process of learning in order for them to gain
knowledge then their technology might become obsolesce. Thus the great challenge for ODL is the way how
to make education a lifelong learning process.
Distance Learning courses are increasing in higher education, studies have shown that students and
instructors, as well as students and students interactions, enhance education at a distance as it improves
attitudes, encourage earlier completion of course work, allows deep meaningful opportunities, increase
retentions and builds learning communities. (Anderson 2003, Trucker 2003, wills, 1995, Hillman, 1999).
Open and distance learning is a better means of supporting learners in the attainment of social, economic and
academic development. The high demand application of Open and distance learning is due to the new
innovations and the use of information communication technologies (ICT).
In the developing countries, for instance, Nigeria where there is a high level of ICT illiterates, then the issues
of ODL are increasing.
ICT literates should use their new skills to educate those who are ICT illiterates so that they can gain
knowledge to be used in ODL process.
Also, the challenge may occur on the sides of literates during the process of learning in order for them to gain
knowledge then their technology might become obsolesce. Thus the great challenge for ODL is the way how
to make education a lifelong learning process.
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Theoretical frameworks
In explaining more on the strategies of improving open and distance learning process for learner and teachers,
various theories have been put in place to explain the objectives and research question used in the research.
The first theory is Cognitive engagement, the complexity of online learning environment, attendant
instrumental materials and how distance learners involve in particular circumstance on their education, has
been seen as important research inquiry since learner’s cognitive engagement is very crucial for any learners
undertaking open and distance learning.
Cognitive engagement as a theoretical framework tends to explain how open and distance learners experience
in the context of learning as they become accountable for their characteristics and experiences.
In the recent study carried by various researchers, it was indicated that cognitive engagement was one of the
important theory for motivating the students learning in the open and distance learning in a various institution
such institution of higher education.
In the open and distance learning students have publicized their variations in various strategies and
motivations as they are studying using open and distance learning in various institution
In explaining more on the strategies of improving open and distance learning process for learner and teachers,
various theories have been put in place to explain the objectives and research question used in the research.
The first theory is Cognitive engagement, the complexity of online learning environment, attendant
instrumental materials and how distance learners involve in particular circumstance on their education, has
been seen as important research inquiry since learner’s cognitive engagement is very crucial for any learners
undertaking open and distance learning.
Cognitive engagement as a theoretical framework tends to explain how open and distance learners experience
in the context of learning as they become accountable for their characteristics and experiences.
In the recent study carried by various researchers, it was indicated that cognitive engagement was one of the
important theory for motivating the students learning in the open and distance learning in a various institution
such institution of higher education.
In the open and distance learning students have publicized their variations in various strategies and
motivations as they are studying using open and distance learning in various institution
Theoretical frameworks cont…
In the open and distance learning students have publicized their variations in various strategies and
motivations as they are studying using open and distance learning.
This scenario can be used to clearly explain the difference between the surface and deep with the learning of
students.
Deep engagement is related to a sort of motivation to create knowledge structure which is more complex by
using existing materials and existing knowledge.
The strategies for improving the student's cognitive engagement were evaluated by using various reviews
from the course content which includes assignments, discussion forum, self-assessment exercise and also the
Cognitive engagements/ Transactional Distance (CE/TD) surveys which were applied at the completion of the
course itself.
The questions which were answered during the conducted survey which mainly dedicated self-regulation, e-
learning and open and distance learning was for purposely to capture transactional distanced which was
alleged by students and also to use to measure students learning cognitive engagement.
In the open and distance learning students have publicized their variations in various strategies and
motivations as they are studying using open and distance learning.
This scenario can be used to clearly explain the difference between the surface and deep with the learning of
students.
Deep engagement is related to a sort of motivation to create knowledge structure which is more complex by
using existing materials and existing knowledge.
The strategies for improving the student's cognitive engagement were evaluated by using various reviews
from the course content which includes assignments, discussion forum, self-assessment exercise and also the
Cognitive engagements/ Transactional Distance (CE/TD) surveys which were applied at the completion of the
course itself.
The questions which were answered during the conducted survey which mainly dedicated self-regulation, e-
learning and open and distance learning was for purposely to capture transactional distanced which was
alleged by students and also to use to measure students learning cognitive engagement.
Theory of Transactional Distance
This theory was stated in the year 1997 by Moore. He elaborated transactional distance as a theory for relating
the universe of teachers –leaners relationships that might exist when the teachers and learners are separated by
time and space.
The importance of transactional distance based on theoretical implications is that exist the educational
interchange among various subjects, particularly pedagogical subjects. (Kaliisa, & Picard, 2017).
The context of distance education is greatly subjective to diverse relations that exists between the structure
and dialogue (Ibara, 2008).
To be very specific the structure is consists of elements, of course, the design which includes assignments,
activities, assessments and learning objectives and on another hand, dialogue involves the useful
communication between the pedagogical subjects.
This theory accounts for the significance of autonomy which shows the features of learners in line with self-
management in learning and the degree of self-control. Also, this theory allows the learners and researchers to
dedicate the affairs between three different fundamentals variables in the distance educational settings.
This theory was stated in the year 1997 by Moore. He elaborated transactional distance as a theory for relating
the universe of teachers –leaners relationships that might exist when the teachers and learners are separated by
time and space.
The importance of transactional distance based on theoretical implications is that exist the educational
interchange among various subjects, particularly pedagogical subjects. (Kaliisa, & Picard, 2017).
The context of distance education is greatly subjective to diverse relations that exists between the structure
and dialogue (Ibara, 2008).
To be very specific the structure is consists of elements, of course, the design which includes assignments,
activities, assessments and learning objectives and on another hand, dialogue involves the useful
communication between the pedagogical subjects.
This theory accounts for the significance of autonomy which shows the features of learners in line with self-
management in learning and the degree of self-control. Also, this theory allows the learners and researchers to
dedicate the affairs between three different fundamentals variables in the distance educational settings.
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Theory of Transactional Distance cont…
Transactional distance theory assists the learners to fully understand the interaction among the three variables
in the context of open and distance learning.
Six significance components that could support the theory of transactional includes organizing the
information presentation ,supports learners motivations , stimulating criticism and analysis ,arranging
applications, testing, evaluation, and practices, giving counsel and advice ,and knowledge creation
arrangement for the students. These elements of the design have similarities of cognitive engagement in
epistemological purviews, specifically in terms of pedagogical strategies and motivation from learning.
Purpose
The purpose of this research :
To find out and ascertain strategies/techniques in which open and distance education in developing countries
can be improved to engage both the teacher and the learner for a better and credible learning outcome.
To assists the students to understand better on various opportunities on how to get access to higher education
through open and distance learning which are flexible and avoidable for learners.
Transactional distance theory assists the learners to fully understand the interaction among the three variables
in the context of open and distance learning.
Six significance components that could support the theory of transactional includes organizing the
information presentation ,supports learners motivations , stimulating criticism and analysis ,arranging
applications, testing, evaluation, and practices, giving counsel and advice ,and knowledge creation
arrangement for the students. These elements of the design have similarities of cognitive engagement in
epistemological purviews, specifically in terms of pedagogical strategies and motivation from learning.
Purpose
The purpose of this research :
To find out and ascertain strategies/techniques in which open and distance education in developing countries
can be improved to engage both the teacher and the learner for a better and credible learning outcome.
To assists the students to understand better on various opportunities on how to get access to higher education
through open and distance learning which are flexible and avoidable for learners.
Research questions and statement of the problems
The Nigerian government have made various initiatives to create human capacity through instituting of many
tertiary educational institutions and vocational which includes, technical nursing, teacher training institutes,
technical colleges, and universities (Cheong, Danaher, Schoepp, & Kranov, 2019).
But it is clearly understood that getting access to this institution specifically university in Nigeria is very low
because there are shortages of learning and teaching materials, shortages of human capacity, inadequate of
lecture rooms and minimal space at the library.
The establishment of Open distance learning gives opportunities to various learners to study while they are
working.
For Instance, the under-qualified secondary teachers who are employed could get due to a chance of
upgrading their professional qualifications and their academic through open and distance learning.
The challenges of ODL delivery in Nigeria due to little learning materials include; first is providing support
to learners during the home study.
The distance between student’s home and the National Open University of Nigeria for face to face delivery
and courses and examinations which students will incur a lot of funds (Tucker, 2001).
The Nigerian government have made various initiatives to create human capacity through instituting of many
tertiary educational institutions and vocational which includes, technical nursing, teacher training institutes,
technical colleges, and universities (Cheong, Danaher, Schoepp, & Kranov, 2019).
But it is clearly understood that getting access to this institution specifically university in Nigeria is very low
because there are shortages of learning and teaching materials, shortages of human capacity, inadequate of
lecture rooms and minimal space at the library.
The establishment of Open distance learning gives opportunities to various learners to study while they are
working.
For Instance, the under-qualified secondary teachers who are employed could get due to a chance of
upgrading their professional qualifications and their academic through open and distance learning.
The challenges of ODL delivery in Nigeria due to little learning materials include; first is providing support
to learners during the home study.
The distance between student’s home and the National Open University of Nigeria for face to face delivery
and courses and examinations which students will incur a lot of funds (Tucker, 2001).
Research questions and statement of the problems cont…
In the study, we have investigated possible opportunities and changes and to achieve this thing we must
answer the following questions.
What are opportunities associated with the introduction of open and distance learning (ODL) programmes at
the National Open University of Nigeria?
What are the modes of the instructional system of ODL programmes at the national open university of
Nigeria?
What are challenges faced during implementation of ODL programmes at the National open university of
Nigeria?
What are various strategies for improving open distance learning for good engagement between the students
and teachers in Nigeria?
What resources and materials are required in the implementation of Open distance learning?
How will learners use the open and distance learning strategy for assessing the learning materials and what
tools they will use to access the resources?
In the study, we have investigated possible opportunities and changes and to achieve this thing we must
answer the following questions.
What are opportunities associated with the introduction of open and distance learning (ODL) programmes at
the National Open University of Nigeria?
What are the modes of the instructional system of ODL programmes at the national open university of
Nigeria?
What are challenges faced during implementation of ODL programmes at the National open university of
Nigeria?
What are various strategies for improving open distance learning for good engagement between the students
and teachers in Nigeria?
What resources and materials are required in the implementation of Open distance learning?
How will learners use the open and distance learning strategy for assessing the learning materials and what
tools they will use to access the resources?
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Method
The sample will consist of the student and staff of the National Open University in Nigeria. The students vary
from young to old including the working class and business class and there are no age limits.
There are campuses all over the 36 states of the country and the researcher intend to the group the students
according to the 6 geopolitical zones of which two campuses will be taken from each geopolitical zone
making a total of 12 campuses.
The approach which was used in gathering the data for the study was a qualitative approach in order to
capture various views concerning the open and distance learning in Nigeria from teachers and learners.
Instruments:
The researcher intends to use a survey (interviews and questionnaires) and direct observation in gathering data
since it is a case study.
Researchers will also used opened ended questionnaire to complement the given information.
And in order to hide the participant identities then code numbers appear on the interview transcripts rather
than the appearance of participant names.
The sample will consist of the student and staff of the National Open University in Nigeria. The students vary
from young to old including the working class and business class and there are no age limits.
There are campuses all over the 36 states of the country and the researcher intend to the group the students
according to the 6 geopolitical zones of which two campuses will be taken from each geopolitical zone
making a total of 12 campuses.
The approach which was used in gathering the data for the study was a qualitative approach in order to
capture various views concerning the open and distance learning in Nigeria from teachers and learners.
Instruments:
The researcher intends to use a survey (interviews and questionnaires) and direct observation in gathering data
since it is a case study.
Researchers will also used opened ended questionnaire to complement the given information.
And in order to hide the participant identities then code numbers appear on the interview transcripts rather
than the appearance of participant names.
Method cont…
The transcript of every interview was assigned to every interviewee for validations.
The responses from the interviewee were sorted into various categories based on their similarities and their
differences (Hamsatu, Yusufu, & Mohammed, 2016).
The researcher will use closed-ended and open-ended questionnaires to obtain the primary data for this study.
The primary source will include interviews, questionnaires, and direct observation which will target many
students at the university.
Questionnaires will be the basis for information collection as the approach searches in detail the good topic
for research, and making sure that the required details are availed for better and in order for the study to be
conducted effectively ( Kabir, & Kadage, 2017).
The sources of secondary data will be retrieved from the books and various journals. Also, secondary sources
of data will be used to explain different conclusions from the previous studies that will research for and based
their conclusions. In terms of direct observation, the researcher will visit the school and make some
observation on various strategies on improving the open and distance learning outcomes
The transcript of every interview was assigned to every interviewee for validations.
The responses from the interviewee were sorted into various categories based on their similarities and their
differences (Hamsatu, Yusufu, & Mohammed, 2016).
The researcher will use closed-ended and open-ended questionnaires to obtain the primary data for this study.
The primary source will include interviews, questionnaires, and direct observation which will target many
students at the university.
Questionnaires will be the basis for information collection as the approach searches in detail the good topic
for research, and making sure that the required details are availed for better and in order for the study to be
conducted effectively ( Kabir, & Kadage, 2017).
The sources of secondary data will be retrieved from the books and various journals. Also, secondary sources
of data will be used to explain different conclusions from the previous studies that will research for and based
their conclusions. In terms of direct observation, the researcher will visit the school and make some
observation on various strategies on improving the open and distance learning outcomes
Data collection
Following steps are required to follow which includes; study protocol, case study database, and lastly
maintaining the chains of the evidence. Below is the diagram that explains the convergence and non-divergence
multiple sources of evidence.
In creating a case study all about organizing and documenting the data you have collected from the cases
studies. This note takes a variety of forms such as it may be results of the interviews, direct observation and
questionnaire, the notes may be handwritten or in electronic files. The notes in the case study database should
be organized according to major subjects as stated in the cases study protocol.
Following steps are required to follow which includes; study protocol, case study database, and lastly
maintaining the chains of the evidence. Below is the diagram that explains the convergence and non-divergence
multiple sources of evidence.
In creating a case study all about organizing and documenting the data you have collected from the cases
studies. This note takes a variety of forms such as it may be results of the interviews, direct observation and
questionnaire, the notes may be handwritten or in electronic files. The notes in the case study database should
be organized according to major subjects as stated in the cases study protocol.
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Research design
The design of our case study will be based on single case design. This means that in our case study will only
include one case.
The first advantage for this design is all about the critical case where one can test a certain theory based on the
strategies for improving the open distance learning in the National Open University of Nigeria.
Second advantages all about the unique case this case design can be used to study a rare case about the Open
and distance learning strategies in the National open university of Nigeria (Rambe, & Moeti, 2017).
The third advantage is the representative case this single case allows atypical of a particular situation, for
instance, a case study of the National Open University of Nigeria will represent the strategies of improving the
open and distance learning process for teachers and students engagements.
The fourth advantage is all a revelatory case where one can reveal the phenomena in the case study which is
not exploited. Lastly is longitudinal case tends to study the case of changes in case study over a given period of
time.
If the case study is well maintained then it will be meaningful, due to the national the Open University of
Nigeria will able to fulfill their research. The following are ways of maintaining the case study;
The design of our case study will be based on single case design. This means that in our case study will only
include one case.
The first advantage for this design is all about the critical case where one can test a certain theory based on the
strategies for improving the open distance learning in the National Open University of Nigeria.
Second advantages all about the unique case this case design can be used to study a rare case about the Open
and distance learning strategies in the National open university of Nigeria (Rambe, & Moeti, 2017).
The third advantage is the representative case this single case allows atypical of a particular situation, for
instance, a case study of the National Open University of Nigeria will represent the strategies of improving the
open and distance learning process for teachers and students engagements.
The fourth advantage is all a revelatory case where one can reveal the phenomena in the case study which is
not exploited. Lastly is longitudinal case tends to study the case of changes in case study over a given period of
time.
If the case study is well maintained then it will be meaningful, due to the national the Open University of
Nigeria will able to fulfill their research. The following are ways of maintaining the case study;
Research design cont…
Analysis: Thematic analysis will be used.
Thematic analysis pursues to get recognize the social foundation of a related group of dialog or texts.
Currently, many disclosures analysis of strategies in improving the open and distance learning in the National
Open University of Nigeria has been undertaken, which develops the theme of teacher identity, culture, and
education as social constructions.
The strategies of open and distance learning case study vary varies in the research methods, the study desire
outcomes, level of abstraction focus of shareholders, context and publishing date. And to manage all these
difficulties the analysis greatly depends on the selection process of the case study (Oyelere, Paliktzoglou, &
Suhonen, 2016).
The cases studies were filtered by using the research method and definition of open and distance learning.
The remaining case studies will be filtered using the criteria from the theory that explains open and distance
learning.
By use of all these techniques of the STAC analytic process, it produces the required case study which is the
strategies for improving open and distance learning process for teachers and students engagements.
Analysis: Thematic analysis will be used.
Thematic analysis pursues to get recognize the social foundation of a related group of dialog or texts.
Currently, many disclosures analysis of strategies in improving the open and distance learning in the National
Open University of Nigeria has been undertaken, which develops the theme of teacher identity, culture, and
education as social constructions.
The strategies of open and distance learning case study vary varies in the research methods, the study desire
outcomes, level of abstraction focus of shareholders, context and publishing date. And to manage all these
difficulties the analysis greatly depends on the selection process of the case study (Oyelere, Paliktzoglou, &
Suhonen, 2016).
The cases studies were filtered by using the research method and definition of open and distance learning.
The remaining case studies will be filtered using the criteria from the theory that explains open and distance
learning.
By use of all these techniques of the STAC analytic process, it produces the required case study which is the
strategies for improving open and distance learning process for teachers and students engagements.
Presentation section
The case study protocol is a written document which is formal by nature and it is mostly used in
capturing the all of the required procedures that are needed in the data collection of the National open
university of Nigeria case study. The case study protocol should be analyzed in more than two stages
so that when preparing to collect the data for the case study the research will be following the right
procedures and as they collect a given data which will be used in the case study (Ibara, 2008).
The role pilot case in the presentation section is to guide the research on the ways they should follow
in their research(Nage-Sibande, & Morolong, 2018). The pilot case is very crucial in various
institution specifically for university in Nigeria. A pilot case which is well conducted by the experts
with clear goals and objectives within a framework which is formal will greatly ensure high-quality
research and a good identification of methods which will be used and the problems which face the
National open university of Nigeria will be identified. In addition, a pilot case will contribute reliable
information which gives guidance for the researcher as they conduct their various
researchers(Barikor, 2003).
The case study protocol is a written document which is formal by nature and it is mostly used in
capturing the all of the required procedures that are needed in the data collection of the National open
university of Nigeria case study. The case study protocol should be analyzed in more than two stages
so that when preparing to collect the data for the case study the research will be following the right
procedures and as they collect a given data which will be used in the case study (Ibara, 2008).
The role pilot case in the presentation section is to guide the research on the ways they should follow
in their research(Nage-Sibande, & Morolong, 2018). The pilot case is very crucial in various
institution specifically for university in Nigeria. A pilot case which is well conducted by the experts
with clear goals and objectives within a framework which is formal will greatly ensure high-quality
research and a good identification of methods which will be used and the problems which face the
National open university of Nigeria will be identified. In addition, a pilot case will contribute reliable
information which gives guidance for the researcher as they conduct their various
researchers(Barikor, 2003).
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References
Barikor, C. N. (2003). A handbook on distance and open education. Port Harcourt: Sarel
Printers & Publishers.
Anderson, T. (2003). Getting the mix right again: An updated and theoretical rationale for
interaction. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 4(2).
Barnes, A. E., Boyle, H., Zuilkowski, S. S., & Bello, Z. N. (2019). Reforming teacher education
in Nigeria: Laying a foundation for the future. Teaching and Teacher Education, 79, 153-163.
Cheong, C., m Danaher, M., Schoepp, K., & Kranov, A. A. (2019). Printable Table of Contents.
JITE: Research, Volume 18, 2019. Technology, 39, 61.
Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E. (2003). E-Learning: promise and pitfalls. E-Learning and the
science of instruction.
Hamsatu, P., Yusufu, G., & Mohammed, H. A. (2016). Teachers' Perceptions and
Undergraduate Students' Experience in E-Exam in Higher Institution in Nigeria. Journal of
Education and Practice, 7(23), 158-166.
Hillman, D. C. (1999). A new method for analyzing patterns of interaction. American Journal
of Distance Education, 13(2), 37-47.
Barikor, C. N. (2003). A handbook on distance and open education. Port Harcourt: Sarel
Printers & Publishers.
Anderson, T. (2003). Getting the mix right again: An updated and theoretical rationale for
interaction. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 4(2).
Barnes, A. E., Boyle, H., Zuilkowski, S. S., & Bello, Z. N. (2019). Reforming teacher education
in Nigeria: Laying a foundation for the future. Teaching and Teacher Education, 79, 153-163.
Cheong, C., m Danaher, M., Schoepp, K., & Kranov, A. A. (2019). Printable Table of Contents.
JITE: Research, Volume 18, 2019. Technology, 39, 61.
Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E. (2003). E-Learning: promise and pitfalls. E-Learning and the
science of instruction.
Hamsatu, P., Yusufu, G., & Mohammed, H. A. (2016). Teachers' Perceptions and
Undergraduate Students' Experience in E-Exam in Higher Institution in Nigeria. Journal of
Education and Practice, 7(23), 158-166.
Hillman, D. C. (1999). A new method for analyzing patterns of interaction. American Journal
of Distance Education, 13(2), 37-47.
References
Ibara, E. C. (2008). Open and distance learning: An emerging system for alternative higher
education in Nigeria. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 9(1).
Kabir, F. S., & Kadage, A. T. (2017). ICTs and Educational Development: The Utilization of Mobile
Phones in Distance Education in Nigeria. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 18(1),
63-76.
Kaliisa, R., & Picard, M. (2017). A Systematic Review on Mobile Learning in Higher Education: The
African Perspective. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology-TOJET, 16(1), 1-18.
Keegan, D. (2013). Foundations of distance education. Routledge.
Long, J., Yuan, J., & Lee, H. M. (2019). How to Program a Chatbot–An Introductory Project and
Student Perceptions. Issues in Informing Science and Information Technology, 16.
Nage-Sibande, B., & Morolong, B. L. (2018). A trend analysis of opportunities and challenges of
open and distance learning provision in dual-mode institutions. Distance Education, 39(4), 495-
510.
Ojo, D. O., &Olakulehin, F. K. (2006). Attitudes and perceptions of students to open and distance
learning in Nigeria. The international review of research in Open and Distributed Learning,
Ibara, E. C. (2008). Open and distance learning: An emerging system for alternative higher
education in Nigeria. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 9(1).
Kabir, F. S., & Kadage, A. T. (2017). ICTs and Educational Development: The Utilization of Mobile
Phones in Distance Education in Nigeria. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 18(1),
63-76.
Kaliisa, R., & Picard, M. (2017). A Systematic Review on Mobile Learning in Higher Education: The
African Perspective. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology-TOJET, 16(1), 1-18.
Keegan, D. (2013). Foundations of distance education. Routledge.
Long, J., Yuan, J., & Lee, H. M. (2019). How to Program a Chatbot–An Introductory Project and
Student Perceptions. Issues in Informing Science and Information Technology, 16.
Nage-Sibande, B., & Morolong, B. L. (2018). A trend analysis of opportunities and challenges of
open and distance learning provision in dual-mode institutions. Distance Education, 39(4), 495-
510.
Ojo, D. O., &Olakulehin, F. K. (2006). Attitudes and perceptions of students to open and distance
learning in Nigeria. The international review of research in Open and Distributed Learning,
References
Rambe, P., & Moeti, M. (2017). Disrupting and democratizing higher education provision or
entrenching academic elitism: towards a model of MOOCs adoption at African universities.
Educational Technology Research and Development, 65(3), 631-651.
Tucker, S. (2001). Distance education: Better, worse, or as good as traditional education?. The
online journal of distance learning administration, 4(4).
Willis, B. (1993). Distance education: A practical guide. Educational Technology.
Rambe, P., & Moeti, M. (2017). Disrupting and democratizing higher education provision or
entrenching academic elitism: towards a model of MOOCs adoption at African universities.
Educational Technology Research and Development, 65(3), 631-651.
Tucker, S. (2001). Distance education: Better, worse, or as good as traditional education?. The
online journal of distance learning administration, 4(4).
Willis, B. (1993). Distance education: A practical guide. Educational Technology.
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