Theories, Principles and Models of Learning in Education and Training

This document analyzes different theories, principles, and models of learning in education and training. It explores the behaviorist, cognitivist, and humanist learning theories and their applications in the classroom. The document also discusses pedagogy and andragogy and how they can be applied to teaching, learning, and assessment. Additionally, it highlights the importance of identifying and accommodating individual learning preferences for inclusive education.

THEORIES, PRINCIPLE AND MODELS OF LEARNING IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING.
KENNEDY RICHARD 12/17/18 UNIT 502

Task A
a) Analyse theories, principles, models of learning and models of learning preferences
According to Darwish (2018), different theories focus on how people learn and considers application
of conceptual knowledge on student learning besides teaching in educational programmes. According
to researchers there are three main theories of learning: Ivan Pavlov’s behaviourist learning theory,
Aaron Beck’s cognitivist learning theory and Andrew Johnson’s humanist learning theory.
• Behaviourist learning theory:
In this learning theory, it is emphasised that people have the tendency to respond to stimuli, things
they have seen and done around them. In other words, the theory expects a learner to be compliantand
responds to environmental stimuli. The learners begin like a clean slate and their behaviour is refined
through conditioning. According to McCarthy (2016), theorists have described this theory as the
concept that controls new behaviour of learner based on surrounding situations and nothing more. The
behaviour of a learner who begins like a clean slate gains shape either from positive or negative
reinforcement further increasing the possibility of reappearance of the previous behaviour. Examples
of the applications of behaviourism in education can be seen when knowledge is provided to students
by a teacher either directly or by setting up contingencies (directed instructions), measuring
observable behaviour of learning through exams, rewards and punishment systems within schools,
audio-lingual approach to language teaching and breaking down of instruction process into Robert
Gagne’s (Abawi 2015) conditions of learning. However, problem-solving is the concern with this
theory.
• Cognitivist learning theory:
According to Bayan (2018), the key focus of Cognitivism learning theory are processes that are
involved in learning instead of being focused on behaviour. It describes learning as a process of
acquiring knowledge by thinking, sensing and experiencing. Mental process is followed by people to
learn and giving instructions does not lead into results of learners. It rather teaches them in taking part
in a process that establishes knowledge. An outward demonstration of learning is not needed by this
kind of learners and more focus is given to the internal activities and connections that take place
during learning. It is further argued in this theory is a mind’s ‘black box’ and should be opened and
comprehended since learner is perceived as an information processor while knowledge should be
viewed as technical or figurative mental constructions, where learning is described as change in a
learner’s structure. According to Ching, Erdem and Keane (2013), purposeful learning, organization
are significant classroom principles of cognitive psychology. Examples of the applications of this
theory in education are information classification relating to new learning with things known, efficient
1

and meaningful arrangement of lectures, discussions and problem solving. The critics of this theory
compared the mental functions to an information processing model further arguing that computation
owing to built-in limitations fails to achieve a human mental functions complexity and cannot be used
for describing these.
• Humanist learning theory:
The key focus of this learning theory according to Havnes and Prøitz (2016) is on freedom, dignity
and potential of humans and it emphasizes that people looking for development should search for
meaning. Theorists maintain that people act with deliberation and values besides believing that
studying the person is necessary, particularly while growing and developing over their lifespan.
Humanists emphasize on the significance of accountability for peoples actions and gives prominence
to individuals value and satisfaction from self-achievement. Learning by this theory is suggested as a
natural desire, through means of self-actualization and personal capabilities, development and
relevance of learning lies in the process as well as control over learning process by the learners is
based on their observation and exploration. Here teacher is a role-model to encourage leaner who
provides reasons and motivation throughout the learning process. However, personal issues of the
learners in the mid of learning may become a problem. The theory is criticised for reduced capacity of
experimental research and dispute on essential presumption of built-in principle.
1.1, 1.3, Analyse two theories of learning (review the theorist list on lecture slides), use direct
displays of research (quotes) to support your analysis. 200 words max excluding quotes.
The behaviourist leaning theorists believe that knowledge survives outside of individuals and
separately and the learning process is supported on visible changes in behaviour. The learning
process begins when a stimulus from the environment is there and the beginner reacts to the
stimulus with a definite kind of reply. As said by B F Skinner “Behaviour used to be reinforced
by great deprivation; if people weren't hungry, they wouldn't work. Now we are committed to
feeding people whether they work or not. Nor is money as great a reinforcer as it once was.
People no longer work for punitive reasons, yet our culture offers no new satisfactions”. Results
that strengthen the wanted behaviour are arranged to pursue the desired actions. The new
behavioural outline can be frequent so that it becomes habitual. The change in behaviour of the
learner signifies that the learning has happened. Teachers tend to use this theory to punish or
reward students. Cognitive theory of learning is based on the thought process behind the
behaviour. It states that the humans tend to process the information rather than just
responding. The mind of the learner is like a mirror where the knowledge is reflected. As said
by Jean Piaget “Childish egocentrism is, in its essence, an inability to differentiate between the
ego and the social environment’’.
2

1.1, 1.3, Analyse pedagogy and andragogy, use direct displays of research (quotes) to support
your analysis. 200 words max excluding quotes.
Andragogy involves the means and practice used in teaching adults. It focuses on independent,
self-directed, and helpful knowledge among adults. “Freedom is acquired by conquest, not by
gift. It must be pursued constantly and responsibly. Freedom is not an ideal located outside of
man; nor is it an idea which becomes myth. It is rather the indispensable condition for the quest
for human completion.” Adults have control over a huge deal of their knowledge experience
and must be stimulated to learn and can frequently look for out original or unlike knowledge
experience, at will. Pedagogy involves the methods and exercises used in education, particularly
of children. On a teacher's means of moving information to a student, that who is reliant on the
teacher's method and consideration. Teacher control the education experience for kids, and
much of what is trained is based on inflexible curriculum. The importance of score in pedagogy
is very elevated as evaluated to andragogy which does not unavoidably need to center on the
mark or test scores. The methods of education practical in pedagogy are worried with the
transferring of ideologies and knowledge to the learners and it is not about the significant
dialogue of the students. Meanwhile, andragogy means is mostly worried with the knowledge
skill of the adults and the model best suit the teaching of the adults.
1.1, 1.3, Analyse a learning preference model (Flemings VARK etc), use direct displays of
research (quotes) to support your analysis. 100 words max excluding quotes.
Fleming stated that visual learners have a first choice for considering.
following neuroimaging examination has suggested that optical learners adapt words into
descriptions in the brain and vice versa, but some psychologists have disputed that this "is not
an instance of learning styles, rather, it is an instance of ability appearing as a style" Likewise,
Fleming claimed that auditory learners best study during listening and tactile or kinaesthetic
learners favour to study via experience, touching, moving, and doing. Students can employ the
model to recognize their favoured knowledge method and, it is claimed; exploit their education
by centring on the form that profits them the most. Fleming's model also posits two types of
multimodality.
b) Explain ways in which theories, principles and models of learning can be applied to teaching,
learning and assessment
3

It has been stated by researchers that to some degree learning theory helps to interpret whether the
learner or learning is significant, if learning will be valued as means of an end or itself is an end and
understand which is of most value. The range of various theories of learning can be utilized in
teaching, learning and assessment. According to Zeng, Huang, Lu and Chen (2018), while teaching
the fresh graduates how to prepare for interviews, the aspects of behaviourist learning theory can be
used by enabling the learners to do role play interviews, motivating them to ask questions that builds
up their self-confident answering approach and natural flow towards the questions that are asked.
While the cognitivist learning theory is used with learners say for example who aim for jobs that
involves direct interaction with customers. The application of this theory helps in ensuring such
learners that their experiences and knowledge revolves around acceptance that helps them impart
good customer services from the past learning that are utilized, so that knowledge of customer
expectations is shown by them. However, at the start of the course, humanist theory is applied to
ensure that learners groom themselves about preparation for their interview such as getting clothes,
credentials arranged before going to interview. Also, it ensures that learners have knowledge of their
next sign on date with the institution’s advisor. Assurance that these are covered before the course
begins gives the feeling of more comfort to the learners. Moreover, formative assessments are used
throughout the course for example, quizzes, presentations, learning mats and workbooks that learners
should complete for gaining the qualification. As part of the summative assessment workbooks are
marked by the teacher besides providing feedback during and at the course end. For covering the
different theories of learning, Individual Learning Plans are designed, which have formative and
summative assessments throughout the plan. Even, learner’s needs are ensured where the plan begins
and then followed by determining probable adjustments, change implementation, if any, as well as
monitoring and evaluation of the individual learning program.
1.3, Explain how the two theories you analysed can be applied to practice (teaching, learning
and assessment). Refer to your area of specialism. 200 words max, no research needed.
Learning theories help the professors and teachers to practice and apply these methods and put
into practice in the classrooms that are helpful for both adults and children. As teaching is a
profession that involves strategies and teaching method and discipline and therefore, it is ought
to teach the students in learning and interesting style though guidance and improve the method
of teaching. It shows them the path and guidance to make the students learn and improve their
grades and scores in exams or tests. Teachers should communicate with the students before
launching of new exercises so that they are comfortable and should be taught in a way that
reinforces each other.
4

1.3, Explain how pedagogy and andragogy can be applied to practice (teaching, learning and
assessment). Refer to your area of specialism. 150 words max, no research needed.
A pedagogical approach can be applied simply to guide a learner throughout a sequence of
basics and steps gradually building on preceding knowledge sets, obtaining agreed topic matter.
This relies on the teacher as the mainly powerful issue to their achievement. They need to
interact with the students on the subject and apply those to improve the method of teaching and
getting higher marks for the assignment or the task. Teenager students are being confident to
reproduce and recognize knowledge gaps, be relevant educated skill to genuine life tasks and
often work together to influence the variety and information of the group. They need to have a
great system in place to make possible the andragogical advance to learning. It can be fairly a
observe confront for the educator to how each scholar is rolling in their knowledge.
c)How identifying and taking account of learners' individual learning preferences enables
inclusive teaching, learning and assessment
According to Abawi (2015), the learning styles of every learner is different and making use of
materials in the learning processes at the very initial stage can help in highlighting the preferred
styles. Activists, theorists, reflectors and pragmatists are Honey & Mumford’s four learning styles
while visual, auditory and kinaesthetic are the preferences highlighted by VAK learning styles.
Making a lesson plan that is holistic through resources like flipcharts, presentations, handouts and
research activities can be ensured by teachers to determine these learning styles besides encouraging
and continuously praising the learners. It is stated by multiple intelligence theory that learning can be
developed by comprehending intelligence and classifying it and thereby encouraging the learners.
Task B
Analysis of theories, principles and models of communication
According to Wilson (2018), communication can be described as a process of exchanging facts, ideas,
and opinions that organisations or people share for interpretation and comprehension with each other.
Howard Gardner’s (Drewery, Nevison and Pretti 2016) psychological theory of multiple intelligences
revolves around humans and distinct types of their intelligences. He emphasizes that an individual has
nine intelligences where some may have two or more dominant intelligences while few might have a
balance of all intelligences. The 9 intelligences listed are Visual/Spatial, Verbal/Linguistic,
Logical/Mathematical, Bodily/Kinaesthetic, Musical/Rhythmic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal
Intelligence, Naturalist intelligence and Existential intelligence. According to Singh et al., (2017), the
first two in most cases are beneficial in teachings while the logical, kinaesthetic and musical
intelligence are related with arts in general and intrapersonal and interpersonal are called 'personal
5

intelligences’. While naturalist intelligence is capability to observe strongly and Existential
intelligence is capability to address critical existence questions. In learning, typically schools stress on
developing logical and language intelligence (principally read and write). Meanwhile in this
environment according to Ogunnaike, (2015), many students function well, while few do not. It is
argued through that this theory has a broader vision of education, students can be educated in a better
way and in different methodologies, exercises and activities are used by teachers for reaching out to
all students and not only the ones excelling at language and logical intelligence. The use of multiple
intelligences approach in learning according to Dearing and Cox (2018), will furnish opportunities of
genuine learning based on the requirements, interests and talents of learners besides making the
multiple intelligence classrooms enact like "real" world. This helps in increasing activeness and
involved learning between students further enabling them in exhibiting and sharing their strengths
where building of strengths will motivate a learner in becoming a specialist. This might in turn drive
to enhanced self-esteem. Positive educational experiences are accumulated by the learners when
teacher teach for understanding besides improving the ability of generating solutions to problems in
life.
According to Wamsler, et al., (2018), when multiple intelligence theory is applied in teaching,
learning and assessment, students begin comprehending how intelligent they are. Learning is a social
and psychological process as stated by Gardner, so when students comprehend the stability of their
own multiple intelligences, they start governing their own learning and value own strengths. It also
helps educators in understanding the intelligence level of students and their own self further enabling
the students to develop the possibility for stronger social intelligence, for instance, this will help in
creating opportunities of fostering the learning into others. According to Zeng, Huang, Lu and Chen
(2018) new concepts of intelligence have been embraced today to bring dynamic improvements in
competencies of human beings. The traditional method of teaching and learning have been dominated
by verbal/linguistic and logical/mathematical intelligence and others are overlooked in general
however, according to Howard Gardner integration of all types of intelligences into teaching and
learning will enhance the success probability of teaching, learning and assessment thus eventually
creating opportunity for people to adjust into various social fabric.
2.1, Criteria not fully met. You have produced a report which only features an analysis of
Gardner`s theory, therefore, to meet criteria in full you should:
-Provide an analysis for another theory, two principles and one model of communication,
ensure to observe the word count provided for this. Support your analysis with direct research
displays (quotes). 600 words max excluding quotes.
The Hypodermic or Bullet Theory which relies on the powerful principle of media and its
consumers are passive. Furthermore, it state that post passing throughout medium are like
6

magic shells which strike the viewers as rapidly as possible but also crash them to hold the
necessary action as rapidly as possible. Aristotle’s Model of communication was urbanized some
2000 years ago. Aristotle, the Greek theorist includes in this replica the five needed factors of
communication that is amplifier, language or message, audience, result and time. Aristotle
suggests that the speaker should build a verbal communication for separate audience on
separate example for separate reason. This model is practical in public speaking. Different
citizens react to dissimilar forms of message, when teachers teach, they give deliberation to the
unreliable types of learner, chart, Aural, reader, Kinesthetic (VARK), the lessons are designed
to comprise all of the style. Learners study in dissimilar ways depending on the consequences
shaped by a sensory contribution. creation orientation to a condition recognized as synaesthesia,
in which one sensory contribution produce unforeseen results for instance, a synaesthete may
see the color red when they see the number 2 and blue if they see number 3, in some cases sound
caused a visual effect for the synaesthete. This may give details why one being responds better
when information is known in a verbal arrangement, one more responds improved if it is image
and so on. The relations between these dissimilar sensory areas of the brain denote that people
all have sole way of perceiving what is being trained or conversed. This allows for
understanding with learner of dissimilar style and this is a good quality motive to think how to
converse to learner with unusual education styles. “Communication is the art of successfully
sharing meaningful information with people by means of an interchange of experience. The
important word is ‘successfully’, which implied that a desired behaviour change results when
the receiver takes the message”. According to theorists, it is not sufficient to converse the
orders, it is also significant to bring admire or positive censure in order to cheer and direct the
beginner into new detection, if the learner is asked to total a job a feeling of achievement will
give confidence performance favourable to further knowledge. This is necessary to when
coaching as own learner can over and over again be antagonistic to the education process,
sentiment it has been compulsory upon them. It is also significant to pay attention to the
student, if tasks are put that are on top of the student’s present abilities then it is probable to
create a message wall whereby the scholar will shut in on themselves not desiring to confess they
cannot carry on and the education procedure will stop. Achieving two way communications
with the learners is not straightforward. Barriers can often present themselves. It is crucial that
a tutor can identify barriers and help learners overcome them. It is proposed that unsuitable
level of work, jargon, vocabulary, environmental factors, fear of failure and inapproachable
tutor can be barriers to learners learning experience.
7

Task C
Analyse theories, principles and models of assessment and explain ways in which they can be
applied when assessing learning
According to Senserrick, et al., (2017), a base for planning the next steps and responding to the needs
of learners, is an essential part of the education process that provides both ‘feedback’ and ‘feed
forward’ which continuously is yielded by assessment. The assessment cycle is usually followed by
any examination, which continues till the target set or study programme has been achieved or
completed by the learner. In education there are many methods of assessment namely observation,
exams, self-assessment and peer-assessment, practical, portfolios and exhibitions, multiple choice
questions, group work and assignments. Self and peer-assessment according to Narayanamurthy and
Gurumurthy (2016), is a proven method of successful assessment where peer assessment sheets are
used by the learners for reflecting and critiquing others works during presentation. The learners work
with the help of a guide for success criteria, which allows them to measure their work level besides
helping in setting new targets and encouraging independent learning further allowing the teachers to
see if there is any scope of improvement in both learner’s work and own teaching. A context
statement for every group is created by the teacher with the help of own observations and use of
Evaluation for creating each student’s profile to see areas where they may need extra help besides
working at progress measure throughout the course end. Also, with the help of a final practical
examination the learners are assessed. The key purpose behind assessment is reflection, improvement
of learning, aid planning and finding out if learning has taken place as well as to analyse the needs of
learners, carrying out the selection process, providing ways for evaluating learning programmes, and
motivating; encouraging the learners. According to Carless (2015), the key principles of assessment
include motivation and continuous development. Lesson plans developed from assessments helps
teachers in comprehending how and by what leaners can be encouraged and motivated to support
them in reaching their maximal potentials. Assessment practice must be kept updated by the teachers
for improving personal development and quality. The ways of applying the theories, principles and
models of assessment according to Deluca, Lapointe-McEwan and Lubanga (2016), revolve around
the learning journey and its relations with the assessment cycle, assessment planning that involves
learners, various assessment stages (screening, initial assessment, diagnostic assessment, formative,
summative), various assessment forms referenced, norm-referenced, assessment for learning), varied
assessment methods such as observation, oral questioning, written questions, project based
assignments, examinations, product evidence, formal and informal, paper and non-paper based, issues
impacting the choice of assessment methods , accuracy, fairness, adequacy, currency, originality),
strengths and restraints of varied assessment methods, modification of assessment strategies for
meeting requirements of learners.
8

3.1, 3.2, Criteria not met as the above does not meet the requirements of this task. Review your
Task C requirements in your handbook to redo this. It is also advised that a tutorial is booked
with me for a review.
The behavioral management theory is often called the human relations movement because it
addresses the human dimension of work. Behavioral theorists believed that a better
understanding of human behavior at work, such as motivation, conflict, expectations, and group
dynamics, improved productivity. The theorists who contributed to this school viewed
employees as individuals, resources, and assets to be developed and worked with — not as
machines, as in the past. Several individuals and experiments contributed to this theory.
TASK D
a. Analyse theories and models of curriculum development
According to Allen, Miguel and Martin (2014), curriculum development is not accomplished in
segregation but as a part of plan, evolution, execution and assessment cycle further describing
development at different levels, right from extensive curricular reform to making changes into
individual lessons. To form the Task basis of curriculum development, there are various models that
can be adopted, which are briefly discussed below.
Linear product or objectives model: the model, according to Page, Trudgett and Bodkin-Andrews
(2018), focuses on teaching model that was developed first by Ralph Tyler (Bayan 2018) and
amended later by Taba (Carless 2015) and this model defines learning in terms of what learners
should get to do at the course end and focuses on learning outcomes by utilising a systematic
approach for planning starting with the course results and followed by developing the course content
for enabling stated outcomes attainment, whose effectiveness are then assessed. The model outlines
four steps in curriculum development revolving around identifying the wider aims and objectives,
course construction for achieving the objectives, testing course capacity and explaining the curriculum
and objectives to teachers.
Cyclical model: according to Alden Rivers, et al., (2015), identification of aims and objectives based
on learner’s assessment of needs are involved in this model followed by selection and development of
content, selection of learning activities and evaluation or assessment. It has been argued in this model
that it is important to plan and introduce changes based on a rational and valid logical process.
Development begins with the assessment of needs followed by designing and implementation for
achieving the outcome. Further based on original assessment and reviewing the needs a final
identification of new needs is made. As needs keep on changing depending upon expectations so
needs are not static and are specific to individual learner. The stages of curriculum development
9

according to Calma (2017), comprises of identifying what to deliver, which includes existing
academic or social belief, culture, politics, economy, learners, educators, professional bodies, exam
boards, funding bodies and earlier influence. It also involves determining needs of learners and
requirements of curriculum bodies, outlining the sessions aims and outcomes, determining ideas and
limitations, detailing main structure, sessions topics and sequence and assessments needed,
identifying and developing topics based on requisite outcomes, developing a teaching programme that
includes timetable, appropriate teaching, assessments and requiredresources, delivering course,
developing evaluation strategies and reviewing course based on feedback.
Student-centred model: developed as a model for active learning in 1960s, curriculum development
according to Harland and Wald (2018), is considered as continuous process and the value of activities
is beyond attainment of learning objectives like socialization, experience based learning, thinking and
problem solving further enabling learners in defining individual goals of learning and emphasizing on
the methods and approaches of adult learning besides using active learning instead of a teacher-led
approach. Also, theory gained shape from beliefs, experiences and current theories and practice and
this model however, beyond the linear and cyclic model is still part of the process. Four processes of
education are outlined by this model namely training or expertise possession, direction or intelligence
possession, commencement or social mixing and induction or problem solving. According to
Simpson, Bradley and O’Keeffe (2018), combining the best of both approaches is ideal for curriculum
development and should be based on the learners’ needs, teacher experience and resources further
enabling learners in developing skills like problem solving, critical thinking and reasoning based on
real and common problems and self-directed learning.
4.1, Analyse Tyler`s theory and Taba`s theory of curriculum development. Use direct research
displays (quotes) to support your analysis. 150 words max excluding quotes.
It is extensively held that student’s deprived educational presentation is caused by shortcomings
in the set of courses when the responsibility ought to in information be required in the teaching
learning process, which is merely a part of curriculum. As Hameyer noted, the quality of a
curriculum can only be as good as the excellence of the curriculum process, depending on the
self-renewing capacity of the individual school, “Youth is something I never want to take for
granted. I just want to smile and live life’’. Likewise, Lovat highlights that student achievement
can only be enhanced when the nature of the pedagogy required is targeted with precision and
implemented with rigor, and with assessment for outcomes that is in tune with the entire
process. Therefore, it is pointed out that it is essential to develop a fundamental understanding
of curriculum theory by the providing the tools necessary when analyzing curriculum
proposals, illuminating practice, and guiding reform.
10

b. Explain ways in which theories and models of curriculum development can be applied in
developing curricula in own area of specialism
According to Maxwell, et al., (2018), planning, experience of the learners and order of occurrences,
all are part of the curriculum, which derives its shape from a huge and vast number of elements. For
the development and implementation of curriculum there exist different methods and approaches and
much of it depends on the approach of teachers for the same. Curriculum, in the training area can be
developed around the learners specified goals. Most of the time curriculum development is based on
the learning and objective needs of learners and the consent for delivering the qualification is given by
external agencies like awarding bodies who supply the syllabus or guidance and provide the
information and framework to the teacher about the delivery and assessment of subject matter. In few
cases according to Plewa, Galán-muros and Davey (2015), funding might be provided by these
external agencies and in such instances the course is provided only after achieving the funding. In
institutional teaching and training, the benchmark of the course requirements is usually set by the
needs of individuals for catering to their needs. The ways through which theories and models of
curriculum development are applied focuses on inclusion, differentiation, work schemes, lesson
planning, different teaching and learning methods for accommodating the preferences of numerous
learning and meet different abilities and/or needs that includes one-to-one, paired work, small and
large group teaching as well as reducing probable institutional/social/cultural/personal obstacles to
learning. Bloom’s classification of Learning i.e. grouping of objectives, knowledge, comprehension,
application, study, combination and evaluation, transformed outputs, establishing of
language/literacy/numeracy as well as differing methods of assessment, legislation, influences the
practice of curriculum development.
4.2, Criteria not met, the above does not address the requirements of this criteria point as it is
general and not specific, to meet criteria:
 Explain ways in which theories (Tyler and Taba) can be applied in developing curricula
in your area of specialism (be specific), 150 words max no research is needed.
The theories can be applied by indentifying the knowledge and skills that a particular
profession demands from the graduate. Principles of curriculum design for a professional
curriculum recommends that the preliminary step in curriculum design can be referred to as
situational analysis. Jones Charters and Bobbitt all had recommended that when designing a
professional curriculum job analysis should commence the process before the subsequent stages
of formulation of objectives, selection and organisation of content, selection and organisation of
learning activities and evaluation procedures are done.
 Explain ways in which the linear and one other model of curriculum development can
be applied in developing curricula in your area of specialism (be specific), 150 words
max no research is needed.
11

The models of curriculum development can be applied in developing curricula by making the
elements of work to be studied, by testing these units with the other students, adapting them as
necessary after the testing, by creating a structure to test to make sure that the material is
covered in a complete manner and putting those units of study into practice while creating new
units to use in the classroom. It helped to lay the foundations of education for students across
the world which is very useful in learning of the students.
Task E
a. Analyse theories and models of reflection and evaluation
According to Drewery, Nevison and Pretti (2016), the concepts of reflection and evaluation are
although separate but related where the former is described as the process that reflects on own
experiences to gain learning from that encounter while the later can be described as the process to
judge or assess an experience or a person. Reflecting on an experience is possible while reflecting at,
recounting or reporting level, avoid evaluation of experience. Getting an experience evaluated without
reflecting on that experience is difficult but not impossible. Teachers with the help of reflection can
mentally process, evaluate and use an experiential knowledge in bringing a change and duplicate an
outcome further allowing them to make progress in their teaching, advancing in a phase that goes
from being a beginner to expert. Currently, there are dozens of reflection and evaluation models in
practice however, only the useful ones are discussed here.
Schön model (Drewery, Nevison and Pretti 2016) describes reflection as the learners’ ability to think
what they are doing while doing the same. To manage the unexplained zones of learning practices one
needs the ability of thinking besides using past experiences over new conditions. Gibbs reflective
cycle (Havnes and Prøitz 2016) helps individuals gain learning from situations they regularly
experience, particularly the ones that do not go well. According to McNamara (2015), the five stages
of the cycle namely description, feelings, evaluation, conclusions and actions help people in thinking
about dealing with different situations for understanding what was done well and reflecting on the
areas of improvement. Kolb reflective cycle (Page, Trudgett and Bodkin-Andrews 2018) emphasises
that people learn from life experiences and in such learning, reflection is considered permanent.
Relevance of reflection in learning is highlighted in this model allowing the learners in processing the
happenings during an experience. Learners can both recount and evaluate their experiences in the
stage of reflective observation further providing necessary information for the next stage for example,
12

Abstract Conceptualization. Learners at this point, get their experiences linked with their own
preliminary learning, expectations and outcomes. Experience can be transformational and accurate
only through reflection since knowledge carried by the learners in the learning activity gets evaluated
based on personal experiences. In the final stage, reflection is used by the learners for creating plans
of additional learning experiences.
Kirkpatrick’s Model (Wamsler et al. 2018) of Learning Evaluation emphasizes on evaluating learning
on four levels reaction, behaviour and results. Measuring across all four levels is important for exactly
knowing the effectiveness of each stage of the learning. According to Ghanizadeh (2017), the learning
program should be designed by beginning with a learning problem followed by identifying the
needful actions for getting the problem solved with learning required to support them. Finally
designing the program is required for execution of the learning. Similar chain should be followed by
the evaluation metrics for knowing what went wrong in case of failure during meeting the learning
goal. Kaufman’s Model of Learning Evaluation according to Sulis, Porcu and Capursi (2018), divides
Kirkpatrick’s level 1 into input (learning materials and resources learners have) and process (clear
delivery of learning experience). A fifth level above individual benefits look at the benefits to society
which was added by Kaufman. Evaluating learning resources separately from delivery is encouraged
in this model. Anderson’s Value of Learning Model emphasizes on aligning evaluation with the goals
of learner and strategic goals of learning program. Success of a learning program in meeting its goals
can be evaluated once they are aligned to the models of Schön, Gibbs, Kolb and Kirkpatrick.
b. Theories and models of reflection can be applied to reviewing own practise
In-line with Schön’s concept of reflecting in and on action, the learning program/course will be
carefully delivered by me after effective planning. Through different ways the lesson will be then
monitored and assessed which will allow me to make required alterations in the lesson plan or scheme
of work. On getting the session completed, my own teaching will be reflected, analysed and evaluated
through assessment and feedback (from learners) during the procedures. This post-action reflection
will further shape my future planning and preparations leading towards a continuous improvement
cycle. Gibbs model can also be applied across any situations that I find myself usually during
everyday life where it helps me to explore the thoughts and assumptions that already exist in certain
areas to conclude any problems that comes across me. For example, while having a misunderstanding
with a person, I compare my thoughts with his/her for making sense of information that has created
confusions. This helps me to conclude that different thoughts were voiced by both persons thus,
helping me to reflect on the information shared for comprehending each other’s views. Reflection
works in those areas of practice particularly where I confront individual and baffling situations.
Interaction with learners at initial and diagnostic assessment stage helps me in understanding their
13

levels of learning thus giving base to reflect on the lessons and amending it in accordance to their
learning needs. These happenings comply with Kolb’s learning cycle and they give me concrete
experiences which are further reflected on the upcoming lessons of effective planning, monitoring of
sessions, post reflection to shape future planning, taking account of feelings and acknowledging
concrete experiences.
b. Theories and models of evaluation can be applied to reviewing own practise
To review own teaching practices Kirkpatrick’s model can be applied for comprehending the
emotional reaction (whether training material was relevant and beneficial to my own work life, if I
was engaged all through the course) to understand my reactions as learner towards the learning
obtained. These emotions can be measured by me via Learning Management System metrics such as
course completion rate, amount of course accomplished, time taken for finishing the course etc., and
through post-learning surveys of myself and areas where I improved. For knowing the influence of a
course on knowledge level that is gained pre- and post-training assessments I can use skills checklist
or multiple-choice quiz for self-evaluation. For evaluating my own behaviour peer observations can
be useful whereas for measuring the result of learning surveys also peer assessment and observation
can be taken for accurate assessment using including metrics, surveys and assessments.
This task meets criteria set.
5.1, You set out well many models of reflection and evaluation highlighting key features of
these models. Models include that of Schön, Gibbs, Kolb and Kirkpatrick.
5.2, You explain well how models including that of Schön, Gibbs and Kolb can be applied to
review practice highlighting delivery after effective planning, monitoring of sessions, post
reflection to shape future planning, taking account of feelings and acknowledging concrete
experiences.
5.2, You explain well how Kirkpatrick`s model can be applied to review practice highlighting
the levels of his model with measures you take to observe them including use of metrics,
surveys and assessments.
14

References
Abawi, L. (2015). Inclusion 'from the gate in': Wrapping students with personalized learning support.
International Journal of Pedagogies &Learning, [Online] 10(1), 47-61. Available:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/22040552.2015.1084676 [Accessed on 14 Nov. 2018]
Alden Rivers, B., Armellini, A., Maxwell, R., Allen, S. and Durkin, C. (2015). Social innovation
education: Towards a framework for learning design. Higher Education, Skills and Work - Based
Learning, [Online] 5(4), 383-400. Available: https://search.proquest.com/docview/1748939188?
accountid=30552 [Accessed on 18 Nov. 2018]
Allen, S. J., Miguel, R. F. and Martin, B. A. (2014). Know, see, plan, do: A model for curriculum design
in leadership development. S.A.M.1Advanced Management Journal, [Online] 79(2), 26-38. Available:
https://search.proquest.com/docview/1554316970?accountid=30552 [Accessed on 18 Nov. 2018]
15

Bayan, Y. F. (2018). Application of path-goal leadership theory and learning theory in a learning
organization. Journal of Applied Business Research, [Online] 34(1), 13-22. Available:
http://dx.doi.org/10.19030/jabr.v34i1.10088 [Accessed on 14 Nov. 2018]
Calma, A. (2017). The long and winding road. The International Journal of Educational Management,
[Online] 31(4), 418-4 29. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJEM-09-2015-0122 [Accessed on 18
Nov. 2018]
Carless, D. (2015). Exploring learning-oriented assessment processes. Higher Education, [Online]
69(6), 963-976. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10734-014-9816-z [Accessed on 18 Nov. 2018]
Ching, A. T., Erdem, T. and Keane, M. P. (2013). Learning models: An assessment of progress,
challenges, and new developments. Marketing Science, [Online] 32(6), 913-938, 1009-1010.
Available: https://search.proquest.com/docview/1467835482?accountid=30552 [Accessed on 14
Nov. 2018]
Darwish, A. Y. (2018). Learning style preferences of undergraduate students. Education & Training,
[Online]60(9), 971-991. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ET-08-2017-0126 [Accessed on 14 Nov.
2018]
Dearing, J. W. and Cox, J. G. (2018). Diffusion of innovations theory, principles, and practice. Health
Affairs, [Online] 37(2), 183-190. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2017.1104 [Accessed on
18 Nov. 2018]
Deluca, C., Lapointe-McEwan, D. and Luhanga, U. (2016). Teacher assessment literacy: A review of
international standards and measures. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability,
[Online] 28(3), 251-272. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11092-015-9233-6 [Accessed on 18
Nov. 2018]
Drewery, D., Nevison, C. and Pretti, T. J. (2016). The influence of cooperative education and
reflection upon previous work experiences on university graduates’ vocational self-concept.
Education &Training, [Online] 58(2), 179-192. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ET-06-2015-0042
[Accessed on 18 Nov. 2018]
Ghanizadeh, A. (2017). The interplay between reflective thinking, critical thinking, self-monitoring,
and academic achievement in higher education. Higher Education, [Online] 74(1), 101-114. Available:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10734-016-0031-y [Accessed on 18 Nov. 2018]
Harland, T. and Wald, N. (2018). Curriculum, teaching and powerful knowledge. Higher Education,
[Online] 76(4), 615-628. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10734-017-0228-8 [Accessed on 18
Nov. 2018]
Havnes, A. and Prøitz, T. S. (2016). Why use learning outcomes in higher education? Exploring the
grounds for academic resistance and reclaiming the value of unexpected learning. Educational
Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, [Online] 28(3), 205-223. Available:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11092-016-9243-z [Accessed on 14 Nov. 2018]
Macnamara, J. (2015). Breaking the measurement and evaluation deadlock: A new approach and
model. Journal of Communication Management, [Online] 19(4), 371-387. Available:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JCOM-04-2014-0020 [Accessed on 18 Nov. 2018]
Maxwell, O. A., Stephen, I. A., Hezekiah, F. O., Paul, S. O. and Oyafunke-Omoniyi, C. (2018).
ENTREPRENEURSHIP CURRICULUM CONTENTS AND ENTREPRENEURIAL DEVELOPMENT OF
16

UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN NIGERIA. International Journal of Entrepreneurship, [Online] 22(1), 1-9.
Available: https://search.proquest.com/docview/2046081515?accountid=30552 [Accessed on 18
Nov. 2018]
McCarthy, M. (2016). Experiential learning theory: From theory to practice. Journal of Business &
Economics Research (Online), 14(3), 91. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.19030/jber.v14i3.9749
[Accessed on 14 Nov. 2018]
Narayanamurthy, G. and Gurumurthy, A. (2016). Leanness assessment: A literature review.
International Journal of Operations & Production Management, [Online] 36(10), 1115-1160.
Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJOPM-01-2015-0003 [Accessed on 18 Nov. 2018]
Ogunnaike, Y. A. (2015). Early childhood education and human factor: Connecting theories and
perspectives. Review of Human Factor Studies, [Online] 21(1), 9-26. Available:
https://search.proquest.com/docview/1823083219?accountid=30552 [Accessed on 18 Nov. 2018]
Page, S., Trudgett, M. and Bodkin-Andrews, G. (2018). Creating a degree-focused pedagogical
framework to guide indigenous graduate attribute curriculum development. [Online] Available:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10734-018-0324-4 [Accessed on 18 Nov. 2018]
Plewa, C., Galán-muros, V. and Davey, T. (2015). Engaging business in curriculum design and
delivery: A higher education institution perspective. Higher Education, [Online] 70(1), 35-53.
Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10734-014-9822-1 [Accessed on 18 Nov. 2018]
Senserrick, T., McRae, D., Phil Wallace, P., de Rome, L., Rees, P. and Williamson, A. (2017). Enhancing
higher-order skills education and assessment in a graduated motorcycle licensing system. Safety,
[Online] 3(2) Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/safety3020014 [Accessed on 18 Nov. 2018]
Simpson, E., Bradley, D. and O’Keeffe Juliette. (2018). Failure is an option: An innovative engineering
curriculum. International Journal of Building Pathology and Adaptation, [Online] 36(3), 268-282.
Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJBPA-10-2017-0046 [Accessed on 18 Nov. 2018]
Singh, Y., makhaira, A., Sharma, A., Agrawal, K., Varma, G. and Yadav, T. (2017). A study on different
forms of intelligence in Indian school-going children. Industrial Psychiatry Journal, [Online] 26(1)
Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/ipj.ipj_61_16 [Accessed on 18 Nov. 2018]
Sulis, I., Porcu, M. and Capursi, V. (2018). On the use of student evaluation of teaching: A
longitudinal analysis combining measurement issues and implications of the exercise. Social
Indicators Research, , [Online] 1-27. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11205-018-1946-8
[Accessed on 18 Nov. 2018]
Wamsler, C., Brossmann, J., Hendersson, H., Kristjansdottir, R., McDonald, C. and Scarampi, P.
(2018). Mindfulness in sustainability science, practice, and teaching. Sustainability Science, [Online]
13(1), 143-162. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11625-017-0428-2 [Accessed on 18 Nov. 2018]
Wilson, S. D. (2018). Implementing co-creation and multiple intelligence practices to transform the
classroom experience. Contemporary Issues in Education Research (Online), 11(4), 127-132.
Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.19030/cier.v11i4.10206 [Accessed on 18 Nov. 2018]
Zeng, W., Huang, F., Lu, Y. and Chen, S. (2018). Towards a learning-oriented assessment to improve
students’ learning—a critical review of literature. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and
Accountability, [Online]30(3), 211-250. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11092-018-9281-9
[Accessed on 14 Nov. 2018]
17

18