Theories, Principles and Models in Education and Training - Desklib

This article discusses the various theories, principles and models in education and training, including learning preferences, models of assessment, curriculum development, reflection and evaluation, and more. It also covers the application of these theories and models in teaching and learning, and the importance of inclusive teaching and learning. The article provides a detailed analysis of the different theories, principles and models of assessment, and the various models of assessment that exist.

UNIT 502: THEORIES, PRINCIPLES
AND MODELS IN EDUCATON AND
TRAINING

TABLE OF CONTENTS
TASK A...........................................................................................................................................3
1.1 Theories principles and models of learning preference.........................................................3
1.2 Models of learning preference...............................................................................................3
1.3 Application of theories and models on learning and teaching...............................................4
3.3 Points of referral available.....................................................................................................4
1.2 Learners learning preferences enabling inclusive teaching, assessment and learning..........5
TASK B- COVERED IN PPT.........................................................................................................5
TASK C...........................................................................................................................................5
3.1 Analysis of theories, principles and models of assessment...................................................5
3.2 Explanation of the ways in which theories, principles and models of assessment can be
applied in assessing learning.......................................................................................................8
TASK D...........................................................................................................................................9
4.1 Theories and models of curriculum development.................................................................9
4.2 Developing curricula in own area of specialism..................................................................10
TASK E.........................................................................................................................................11
5.1 Theories and models of reflection and evaluation...............................................................11
5.2 Reflection and evaluation applied to reviewing own practice.............................................13
REFERENCES................................................................................................................................1

TASK A
1.1 Theories principles and models of learning preference
In teacher's daily practice of training and education, theories and models of learning plays
a very important role. The various different theories are:
 Behaviourism theory: This theory was originated as a result of Pavlov's experiments
made on people because the classical conditioning suggests that the quality of learning
of individuals depends on positive experience in the environment (Budiman, 2017).
According to this theory teachers are the centre of learning process rather than students
being the centre. It helps in creating guidelines in by the teacher for the learners in
reshaping practices and gaining a positive experience.
The theory was provided by Skinner. It states that the strict behaviours are the outcomes
of experiences. This theory believes that the behaviours can be learned through
interactions. As per the views Skinner, this model can be applied in learning and
teaching as well because, human behaviour is modelled through the complex
reinforcement patterns from their environments. Humans actively engage in their
environments for producing the stimuli to respond to. The main idea behind this theory is
that the human behaviour is formed through the consequences of their past behaviour.
Cognitivism theory: According to this theory students should learn through mental
processing of knowledge (Al-Jarrah and et.al., 2019). It suggests that teachers should
create strategies that keeps students focused and keep their state of mind at their highest
level by using of various tools like; visual aids, mind mapping, presentations etc. With
the use of this theory students will be an active part of the knowledge process that will
help in balancing their personal and mental levels of understanding. This theory focus on
how the information in human brain is received, stored, organized and retrieved as well.
The theory focus on the use of mind as an information process just like a computer. So it
can be applied in assessment, learning as teaching as it looks beyond the behaviours
which are observable and views learning as a mental process.
For example: A students learns regarding the subtraction and addition concepts. After
that he is able to transfer that information whenever he needs to create budget in various
situations as in his studies or in personal life as well.

 Constructivism theory: constructivism is a theory that suggests that learners construct
knowledge rather than just taking in information passively (Cain and et.al., 2018).
Knowledge cannot be imparted directly to learners, so the aim of this theory is to provide
experiences which facilitates construction of knowledge. This theory states that a leaner
forms their information and does not take it in. It means that when this theory is applied
in learning, assessment and teaching, the individuals experience the world and through
this experiences they are able to build their representations and build up new information
into their re-existing information.
For example: A teacher asks the students to reflect on their own processes in groups and
privately as well. It enables the students to enhance their knowledge which is based
entirely on their own experiences.
1.2 Models of learning preference
There are two types of models of learning preference which are: Pedagogy model: This model is used for child learners, where it is dependent on the
teachers teaching style (Arifin and et.al, 2020). That is teachers take responsibility of
what is being taught and evaluates progress and efficacy of the learners variedly on wider
academic aspects. Child learners come with little life experiences, the teacher is one of
the most influential figure in their life. Learning is prescribed by the teacher in a
sequence which makes logical sense and breaks it down in units. Here, the learners are
motivated by the teachers and their parents
 Andragogy model: This model is used for adult learners. In this model the students are
self-dependent, that is it requires self-evaluation and takes self-responsibility of the
process and direction (Youde, 2018). As foundation, learners use their own experiences
and the educator helps in building the knowledge on the basis of that knowledge with
understanding of the diversifying backgrounds. Adult learners also learn from their peers.
Here the learning is prescribed by themselves, they organise topics around their life and
work solutions. Learners are motivated by self-esteem, problem solving, quality of life
that is by intrinsic means of motivation.
 Kolb and Honey and Mumford learning reflection: The honey and Mumford learning
model is based on the Kolb’s work which proposes that learning have 4 different styles.

These learning styles provides the learning activities best suited to each learning styles as
well. The theory states that every learner prefer on of two learning styles in their
learnings. These styles are activities, reflectors, theorists and pragmatists. Reflective
learning style focus on learning through reflective observation and Theorists focus on
learning through abstraction of conceptualization. Pragmatists learning style focus on
learning through the active experimentations and activities learn through concrete
experiences such as feelings.
1.3 Application of theories and models on learning and teaching
Theories and models of learning can be applied in teaching in various ways, that is
behaviourism theories can be used as a means of rewards and punishment. Also, it can be used to
acknowledge the difference of students by highly structuring the lectures and taking
responsibility of students. With application of cognitivism theory, it helps in encouraging
curiosity as it engages experiences in learning. Also, it tests hypothesis for inquiry oriented
learning where teacher creates a scenario environment for students to be familiar with. By using
the constructivism theory, learners can collaborate in teams and work in groups for better
understanding. Thus, creating a cooperative and supportive learning environment. Also, theories
can be used in combination with each other depending on the capacity and requirements of
learners and creating an environment for different types of learning and preferences,
acknowledging the needs of learners (Baird and et.al., 2017).
Learning preferences is very important to acknowledge in the teaching as it requires
different techniques which are combined to maximize learning. Application of these models and
theories not only support flow of the learners but also motivates learners for putting further
efforts. It engages learners actively creating a multi-sensory environment. The model of Kolb
and Honey and Mumford learning reflection can be applied in learning as it can make the
learning much easier, effective and faster as well. Through this model of learning, learning as be
improved because it allows increase in the awareness of how an individual likes to learn and
create the foundations of their learnings.
3.3 Points of referral available
Points of referrals to keep in mind fulfilling the needs of learners are:

 Ensuring that topics and material provided and presented are in such a way which is
sensitive to diversity and equality. Also, ensuring learners language is appropriate and
non discriminatory.
 Using of non discriminatory language and ensuring fair and equal assessment without
discriminating against any student and promoting value of diversity with making use of
references and examples.
 Creating an environment which gives opportunity to learners in establishing relationships
effectively and which is safe specially for learners who have lack of mobility or sensory
disability.
1.2 Learners learning preferences enabling inclusive teaching, assessment and learning
Inclusive teaching and learning is all about ensuring that all students have the opportunity
to get involved and to contribute in the process of learning. It recognises learner's entitlement to
learning that respects diversity, includes participation, removing barriers and anticipating various
learners need and preferences (Lawrie and et.al., 2017). Learners preferences functionally plays
strong role for creating inclusive teaching, learning as it further opens up scope for diverse
education platforms.
That is with the individual preferences and needs of individual it builts an inclusive
environment which promotes equality and gives opportunity to each and every learners, to fulfil
their needs and requirements. Also, it values diversity by understanding the various individual
preferences of the learners and creating a multi multiculturalism environment. Also, by
understanding the different individual needs and preferences of learners, it results in better
coordination and communication between the teachers, learners and peers and building a positive
inclusive environment for teaching with teamwork and coordination. With understanding the
preferences and need of individuals, it helps in better understanding of learning process that is
teaching and learning process's can be altered according to the preference of learners so that they
can understand it easily and also, it results in including learners in teaching process's. Thus,
creating an inclusive learning environment for teaching.

TASK B- COVERED IN PPT
TASK C
3.1 Analysis of theories, principles and models of assessment
The learning within the teaching is important and to assure the learning has been occurred
comes under the assessment. Assessment can be defined as a learning check in form of
questioning from the students (Baird and et.al., 2017).
Theories of assessment: Assessment is used to conduct evaluation of individual performance on
the basis of skill development in students (Jedemark, 2018). The assessment theory can be
understood with the help of four level models whereas one of each evaluation level is related
with information provided by below level (Assessment Theory, 2021).
 Level 1 Reaction: The way student react towards the learning program is measured in
this stage. The evaluation sheet is also called as 'smile-sheet' and these reactions have
very important consequences of the learning process in terms of positive and negative.
 Level 2 Learning: According to this step, the evaluation is done in the terms of
advancement in the student whereas advancement is judged on the basis of skills,
behaviour or knowledge. These methods can range from formal to informal measurement
for the assessment.
 Level 3 Transfer: The Measurement at this level became complex as the change in
individual behaviour is not always same. The way students are levelled up in the skills
are measured in the transfer level.
 Level 4 Result: This level evaluate and measures the success of overall learning by the
students. The results are complex to measure as the direct link-up in between learning
and the result is hard to indicate directly.
These theories have a positive impact on the learning as these theories offers the
improvement chances to the student but these are the time taking process to implement in the
practical knowledge.
Principles of assessment: Assessment within the learning process follows various principles to
understand the knowledge and skills of the students (Earle, 2020).
 Validity: Assessment are the integral part of new and existing programme learning.
Whereas, the assessment validity is considered through the review of the learning

program. The validity can be supported by the subject specialist or the respective
teachers at the annual or periodic review.
 Reliability: For the assessment to be reliable, the clear as well as the consistent
procedures should be there for the grading, marking, and moderations of the learning
assignment.
 Authenticity: Assessment should reflect the opportunity to develop the skill and
capabilities of the students in the authentic way. The purpose behind authenticity is to do
the work without compromising with academic standard.
 Transparency: Assessment should be transparent so that it can be a liable source to
evaluate the performance of student.
 Efficiency: The amount of work and the scheduling of the assignment should be
efficient as well as manageable without overloading students.
 Sufficiency: The amount of the assignment work should be sufficient to demonstrate the
skills of the students.
 Development feedback: Students are always entitled to feedback on submitted task, this
can lead to the learning development in terms of the assessment.
 Medals and missions: Mission of assessment must be competent to undertake all the
roles and responsibilities of the students.
On analysing the principle of assessment, they have advantage over skill development of
the students and leads towards the conceptual learning. However, on the contrary note if the
student is performing below the level then it leads them towards the demotivation.
Models of assessment:
Model illustrate the complete procedure of assessment from daily work to working
portfolio. There are various types of assessment model exist, among them few are described as:
 Competency model: This model contains specific guidelines focuses upon the specific
skills, behavioural as well as the knowledge required to complete the task. These
guidelines are drawn by the human resource department (Olshanska and et. al., 2019).
The competency model describes the successful performance of the individual with in an
organization.

 Non-competency model: This model can be also called as the direct assessment
program. These learning models are focused upon more individualization. On
competency model typically depends upon the analysis of individual behaviour and their
learning outcomes.
These models have advantages over assessment, they offer clear goal to the student as well as
improves student efficiency with respect to skills. However, in the contrary note many of time
the models are unwieldy or complex to understand.
3.2 Explanation of the ways in which theories, principles and models of assessment can be
applied in assessing learning
Proper application of theories and principles brings positive changes in the learning of
education. Models and principles of the assessment emphasizes on the learning process and its
regular modification with the skill improvement in students.
Linkage between learning theory and assessment: learning theories, that provides the
profound understanding in between the teaching practices and teaching standards are imperative
to the learning assessment. The paradigm alteration in between the 'assessment of' learning to
'assessment for' learning has explored the modifications as well as the evaluation in diversity
within the education practices. As the teachers are committed to the effective teaching learning,
they have to embrace these challenges as learning assessments. For the improvement in the
students, usually competency mode of assessment is being used to evaluate the performance of
students towards the new learning introduced in the education. The feedback and feed-forward
mechanism are used for the learners so that they can utilize their skills towards the actions. Feed-
forward assessment contain the subsequent information to understand the application of assessed
work on the subsequent work. The whole feedback learning theory leads towards the good
performance.
Black and William (1998) : proposed the study on assessment in education , that included
the principle and practices in the education. According to the assessment for learning, feedback
process are used to optimize the learning capabilities of the students. These feedback ranges
from the informal to formal (Simonsmeier and et. al., 2020). These techniques are very useful in
the self assessment of the students, here they can also be involved in the decision-making process
about their upcoming future requirements.

Assessments are generally divided in the three stages:(1)Assessment for learning- This learning
has influence on motivation and self esteem of student as this can lead the student towards the
constructive feedback. So it can said as assessment is developmental. (2)Assessment as learning:
This learning reflects upon the learning process by monitoring performance and progress of the
students. So, the learning leads towards the constructive evaluation and assessment.
(3)Assessment of learning: In that teacher uses the student learning as a base for the judgement
of students. This can leads towards the future learning tracks for the students. Moreover, by
using all theories of the assessment as well as the models, the access of understanding became
easier for the students and the evaluation learning can be diverse into innovative development of
the students.
TASK D
4.1 Theories and models of curriculum development
Curriculum development refers to the step by step process taken by the teacher in order to
develop positive improvement in courses of schools and universities. The courses are the
information from which students learn and the courses are developed for the better progress of
the students according to the needs of the students, knowledge of the teachers and resource.
Theories related to curriculum development are :
According to Ralph Tyler, learning should be meaningful to the students and his
community (Wraga, 2017). Tyler recommanded that data related to learners, contemporary life
of outside school and the subject manner should be collected first in order to develop efficient
curriculum development.
Lawrence Stenhouse believed that curriculum is an entire education project and culture of
education institute or classroom that plays important role in improving the learning of student.
The connection between teacher and students also help in curriculum development of individuals
for bright future ahead.
From John Dewey's point of view, students must adapt to their environment in order to
learn and curriculum should be relevant to the students lives (Hamilton, 2017). Dewey believed
learning by doing, practicals are essential for student as it help them to understand the real world
better.
According to Hilda Taba, there has a definite order to create a curriculum. Taba's theory
was to enhance the thinking skills of the students that states that teachers understand the students

needs and make use of their needs to motivate in learning for improvement in the curriculum
development (Casey and Quennerstedt, 2020).
Models related to curriculum development
There are various models of curriculum development that are followed by many
educational institutes. Each model is based on certain assumptions about students. Some of them
are as follows : Product model : This model of curriculum development focuses on the end results such
as grades, projects of the students and reaching an objective. This method also help the
educators to measure the curriculum development. Learning skills are also developed
with activities like final quiz. Process Model : The process model of curriculum development focuses on the process
of learning that include how students are learning, what are they thinking and how it will
impact the future learning of the students. The main objective of the process model is
determination of process of learning and improvising the way of thinking and learning. Praxis model : This model is preparation of curriculum that lead the students towards
human well-being. It is also about discriminating the meaning of learning and
contributing to the course of social change.
 Spiral model : It refers to the curriculum development in a way that key factors are
presented repeatedly throughout the curriculum. The key factors to the Spiral curriculum
are cyclical, increasing depth and prior knowledge.
4.2 Developing curricula in own area of specialism
Theories surrounding the curriculum development has given many models that can be
used in schools or universities. It aims at the analysing the impact of theories of learning on
student and furthermore, discuss about the coordination between teaching practises and learning
theories (Bhuttah, and et.al, 2019). These theories and models also allow teachers to make
informed decisions and to deliver the effective curriculum.
The product model of curriculum development is related to the theory or objectives
model given by the Tyler. This model identifies the learning structure and objectives of the
curriculum. The benefits of such model is that it can be used by large scale organizations. It is
also supportive in teaching learners of different ability. In context of this model Tyler
recommended the condensation of the following points.

 The purpose of eduction
 The learning objectives that are to be followed
 The organization of learning
 The assessment of learning that has taken place
Theories and models of curriculum development that can be used for developing
curricula in own area of specialism in many ways. Models like product model, process model,
praxis model and spiral model help the teachers to improve the learning skills of students.
Changes are also made according to the process of the development in the students.
From the Stenhouse's point of view environment of the classroom teaches a lot to the
students as well as teachers (Moon, 2021). Improving learning ability of students with the
environment boost the understandings of the students. It also develops the own are of specialism.
The process model of curriculum development inspired by the theory of Stenhouse. This
model helps to understand the humanism along the learning skills (Fitzclarence and Kemmis,
2020). It benefits the students to learn on their own preferences. The implementation of this
model enables the learners to develop the deeper and higher levels of learning. There are 4 steps
to curriculum design.
 Training or skills acquisition
 Instruction or information acquisition
 Initiation or Socialisation
 Induction or problem solving.
The use of such models are to increase creativity of the students. Process models are
based in the way of thinking of the students, their perspectives. This model is more adoptive in
small learning areas. Teachers also develop their perspective with the use of process model.
Combining models according to the needs of students, teacher experience and resources is the
best approach of developing the curriculum.
TASK E
5.1 Theories and models of reflection and evaluation
Reflection refers to the idea or knowledge that reflects the real world. Evaluation is mean
to collect and analysis the information about any aspect of a programme of education. The
experience of a person can be utilized for better future. Reflection are noted as information and
evaluation of information is done. It helps the individual to learn from the previous experience

and changes are made to avoid that mistake in future. Theories of reflection and evaluation are
based on learning and developing skills through actual experiences. Below are some theories of
reflection and evaluation.
Gibbs Reflective cycle :
One of the most famous cycle of reflection given by Gibbs, that enables to understand
the incident and help in learn from the previous experience (He, Parkinson, and Doyle, 2018).
This cycle includes majorly 5 elements or steps of reflection and evaluation. Following are the
steps of Gibbs reflective cycle. Description : The first stage of reflection and evaluation given by Gibbs is to gather
information about the incident on the basis of experience. No conclusion is drawn at this
stage. It is the description of what happened? How? Where? When? and some more basic
details about the incident. Feelings : This refers to the discussion of feelings at that period or point of incident.
Questions like how did someone feel before, during or after the incident? What were
others thoughts at the time of incident or how they are feeling right now? The description
of feeling towards the experience is done at this stage of reflection cycle. Evaluation : This stage refers to the evaluation of the situation. Both positive and
negative aspects are noted from the experience. Evaluation should be objective in order to
understand better what is good or bad for the person. Conclusion : The fourth step is about analysing the positive and negative aspect of the
information gathered and decide in what ways this can be positive for everyone involved.
Conclusion states what a person learns from the experience.
 Action : This step is to take action or make changes from the learning of experiences. It
refers to sum up of everything a person needs to know and do in order to bring
improvement in the future.
Kolb's learning cycle :
According to Kolb, effective learning can only take place when an individual is taking
experience into stages of Kolb's learning cycle (McLeod, 2017). Following are the four stages
given by Kolb :

1. Concrete Experience : It refers to doing or having experience. This can be either new or
reimagined experience. Each learner is engaged in a task in order to acquire new
knowledge.2. Reflective Observation : On this stage of the learning cycle Kolbs mentioned that
observations are made on the experience. Various perspectives are analysed and
discussed the situation given or experience.3. Abstract Conceptualization : This step is to draw conclusion about the experience or
making sense of the given situation. This involves analysing the comparing the
experience to the current scenario.
4. Active Experimentation : The last stage of the learning cycle is to test the learning from
the experience. Learners return to the new task with the goal of applying their conclusion
to the new experience.
5.2 Reflection and evaluation applied to reviewing own practice
Theories and models of reflection and evaluation can be applied on own practise. It helps
to understand and learn from the experience. Below is an example of my experience evaluating
with the reflection learning cycle :
Gibbs reflective cycle's first step is to description of the experience which provides basic
information about the experience, as in my case. I was given assignment on leadership with 4
others and it was my first assignment in high school. Deadline of presenting the assignment was
3 days from the task given. I presented the file on time.
Second step in the model of reflective cycle is to talk about feelings in order to
understand the experience further in relation to my experience I was feared of having huge
project and my mates was also not sure if I could do it or not. Later It built confidence in me and
my teammates were also supportive. Everyone was happy with my project presentation.
Evaluation is the third step of the Gibbs reflective cycle which is to analysis the positive
and negative sides from the experience. Likewise, positive sides of this experience was :
 Confidence
 Supportive Team
 Good presentation
Negative sides of the experience was :

 Fear
Fourth step is the conclusion that refers to the learning stage of the reflection cycle.
Conclusion are made on the basis of what is good and bad from the experience. In this case, it
can be concluded that supportive team or team management can bring the confidence to the
person. It is very necessary to work with coordination because team with no support left the
work with fear and deadline.
The final step of the Gibbs reflection theory states the action. It refers to the use of
learning into future work. Make changes in order to bring the improvement is the motive and
fifth stage of this reflection and evaluation model. This case helped me to improvise the team
management and being confident.

REFERENCES
Books and journals
Al-Jarrah and et.al., 2019. The application of metacognition, cognitivism, and constructivism in
teaching writing skills. European Journal of Foreign Language Teaching.
Arifin and et.al, 2020. Technology Andragogy Work Content Knowledge Model as a New
Framework in Vocational Education: Revised Technology Pedagogy Content
Knowledge Model. Online Submission. 9(2). pp.786-791.
Baird, J. A. and et.al., 2017., Assessment and learning: Fields apart?. Assessment in Education:
Principles, Policy & Practice. 24(3). pp.317-350.
Bhuttah, T.M., and et.al, 2019. Analysis of Curriculum Development Stages from the
Perspective of Tyler, Taba and Wheeler. European Journal of Social Sciences. 58(1).
pp.14-22.
Budiman, A., 2017. Behaviorism and foreign language teaching methodology. ENGLISH
FRANCA: Academic Journal of English Language and Education. 1(2). pp.101-114.
Cain, and et.al., 2018. Focusing on learning through constructive alignment with task-oriented
portfolio assessment. European Journal of Engineering Education. 43(4). pp.569-584.
Casey, A. and Quennerstedt, M., 2020. Cooperative learning in physical education encountering
Dewey’s educational theory. European Physical Education Review. 26(4). pp.1023-
1037.
Earle, S., 2020., Principles of assessment. The Early Career Framework Handbook. p.111.
Fitzclarence, L. and Kemmis, S., 2020. A distance education curriculum for curriculum theory.
In Critical reflections on distance education (pp. 147-177). Routledge.
Hamilton, D., 2017. Some observations on progressivism and curriculum practice. In Progress
and Inequality in Comprehensive Education (pp. 23-38). Routledge.
He, K. N., Parkinson, L. and Doyle, A. K., 2018. Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle.
Jedemark, M., 2018., The use of theories in the assessment of the school-based part of the
teacher education programme. In EAPRIL 2018 Vol. 5. pp. 162-170.
Lawrie and et.al., 2017. Moving towards inclusive learning and teaching: A synthesis of recent
literature. Teaching & learning inquiry. 5(1). pp.9-21.
McLeod, S., 2017. Kolb's learning styles and experiential learning cycle. Simply psychology.
1

Moon, S. M., 2021. Theories to guide affective curriculum development. In Social-emotional
curriculum with gifted and talented students (pp. 11-39). Routledge.
Olshanska, O. and et.al., 2019., Building a competency model student training.
Simonsmeier, B. A., and et.al., 2020., Peer Feedback Improves Students' Academic Self-
Concept in Higher Education. Research in Higher Education. 61(6).
Wraga, W. G., 2017. Understanding the Tyler rationale: Basic Principles of Curriculum and
Instruction in historical context. Espacio, Tiempo y Educación. 4(2). pp.227-252.
Youde, A., 2018. Andragogy in blended learning contexts: Effective tutoring of adult learners
studying part-time, vocationally relevant degrees at a distance. International Journal of
Online references
Assessment Theory, 2021.[online] Available through
<https://www.andrews.edu/sem/dmin/surveys-assessment/theory/index.html>.
2