Vaccine Development and Technology

This assignment delves into the world of vaccine development and explores diverse approaches used to combat infectious diseases. It examines the history of vaccination, including successes like smallpox eradication, and analyzes current challenges in developing vaccines for diseases such as influenza, HIV/AIDS, and malaria. The document also highlights emerging technologies like RNA-based vaccines and viral vector vaccines, showcasing their potential in addressing global health concerns.

Running head: VIRAL VACCINES
Viral Vaccines
Name of the Student
Name of the University
Author Note

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Table of Contents
Chapter 1....................................................................................................................................2
Introduction............................................................................................................................2
Viral Vaccines........................................................................................................................2
Chapter 2....................................................................................................................................3
Types of Viral Vaccines.........................................................................................................3
Advantages and Disadvantages of Viral Vaccines.................................................................3
Advantage..........................................................................................................................3
Disadvantage......................................................................................................................4
Chapter 3....................................................................................................................................5
Vaccine production................................................................................................................5
Conclusion..................................................................................................................................7
References..................................................................................................................................8

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Chapter 1
Introduction
The discipline of immunology is incomplete without vaccination. The concept of
vaccination was developed via the pioneering efforts of Edward Jenner and Louis Pasteur and
has helped in the eradication of small pox and polio (Baron, 2014; Smith, 2013). Vaccination
has also reduced the rate of occurrence of diseases like, measles, mumps, rubella, diphtheria,
tetanus, pertussis (whooping cough) (Munoz et al., 2014). The development of vaccines
begins with simple research. However, recent advancement in the field of immunology and
molecular biology has paved the foundation of effective novel vaccine. B-cell and T-cell
epitope have enabled immunologist to design new age vaccines which can maximise both the
arms of immune system, active immunity and passive immunity (Patronov & Doytchinova,
2013).
Viral Vaccines
There is always a need for development of vaccines against infectious diseases. Each
year millions of people die round the world because of deadly viral disease, HIV-AIDS.
According to World Health Organisation, 34 million in world is suffering from HIV (De
Cock, Jaffe & Curran, 2012). The first viral vaccine was designed via cloning a gene for
major surface antigen of the Hepatitis B virus (HBsAg). The process undertaken was
recombination, the recombinant yeast containing HBsAg has shown to generate protective
antibodies against hepatitis B worldwide (Yu, 2016).

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Chapter 2
Types of Viral Vaccines
Viral vaccines are generated out of inactivated virus or attenuated virus (alive but
devoid of pathogenecity or devoid of disease causing capability) (Pica & Palese, 2013).
The failure of seasonal influenza vaccine to protect against the influenza infection had
augmented the requirement for the discovery of the cross-reactive influenza vaccine that can
elicit immunity against different subtypes of virus including newly emerging pandemic virus.
The cross-protective vaccines like whole inactivated virus (WIV) vaccine, targets conserved
internal antigens like the matrix protein or nucleoprotein of the virus and thereby preventing
viral proliferation inside the body (Budimir et al., 2012). This inactivation can be done via
several chemical compounds. The inactivated viral vaccine for West Nile virus (WNV) has
been generated via the application of hydrogen per-oxide (H2O2) as an inactivating agent.
The inactivated or attenuated vaccine thus produced is safe and immunogenic and is capable
to protecting against WNV (Pinto et al., 2013).
Other principal form of viral vaccines includes viral vector vaccines. Viral vector
vaccines can be developed via using fowl poxvirus (FPV) and herpes virus of Turkey (HVT)
as principal vectors carrying infectious laryngotracheitis virus (ILTV) genes. It is wide used
in the poultry industry of USA for commercial purpose (Vagnozzi et al., 2012).
Advantages and Disadvantages of Viral Vaccines
Advantage
Live-attenuated viral vaccine has several advantages. For example, live attenuated
respiratory synctial virus (RSV) vaccine offers multiple advantages when used for
immunization of young and infant children. This vaccine does not generate vaccine-

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associated enhanced RSV disease. Under the immunity wing, they generate innate, cellular
and humoral immune response. This activation of immunity occurs in both systemic and local
form. The generation of cellular and humoral immune response promote the generation of
memory response thereby helping to fight against the recurrent infection in future. Moreover,
this vaccine, does not cross-react with the passively acquired maternal antibody in the upper-
respiratory tract (Karron, Buchholz & Collins, 2013). Another form of the viral vaccines is
RNA vaccines. The major genetic material of virus is RNA and hence it is used as an
important component for viral vaccines. The RNA vaccines are made using mRNA transcript
or via using self-amplifying RNA replicons. They have the potential to overcome the
limitations associated with plasmid DNA and viral vectors (Ulmer, Mason, Geall, & Mandl,
2012). Viral vector-based vaccines can increase the immunogenicity in the absence of an
adjuvant. It also induces a robust cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) response that helps in
eliminating virus-infected cells (Ura, Okuda & Shimada, 2014).
Disadvantage
Live attenuated vaccines have certain disadvantages. There lies a risk of these live
attenuated vaccines to undergo recombination to generate virulent natural recombinants. For
example, recombination between herpes viruses have been observed both in-vitro and in-vivo
experimental conditions and thus has generated safety concerns regarding the application of
the attenuated herpes virus vaccines, both for human and for veterinary use. The disease
generating out of recurrent reactivation causes lifelong chronic infection (Lee et al., 2012).

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Chapter 3
Vaccine production
Hepatitis B remains a significant global health problems inspite of availability of
effective and safe vaccine. The low cost, orally derived hepatitis b vaccine can alleviate
problems like perpetuating infection-transmission cycle.
1. Cloning gene for HBsAg in yeast
2. Expressing the HBsAg under the presence of promoter
3. The recombinant yeast cells are cultivated in huge fermenters
4. HBsAg accumulate inside the cell
5. Yeast cells are harvested and then disrupted under high pressure
6. Release of recombinant HBsAg
7. Purified via concentional biochemical method
8. Recombinant hepatitis B vaccine induce production of portective antibodies against Hepatitis B
virus
Figure: Hepatitis B vaccine production via bioencapsulation of HBsAg
(Source: Hayden et al., 2012)

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Figure: Steps for influenza vaccine production
(Source: Partridge & Kieny, 2013)
Figure: Vaccine production and its mechanism within the body
(Source: Riley & Stewart, 2013)
Disease associated with viral vaccines

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The most common secondary immuno-deficiency is acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome of AIDS. It is caused by human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1). The rapid
proliferation of the virus causes instant establishment of a systemic, large viral population,
which is capable of dynamic adaptation under every immune selection pressure. These
viruses always remain one-step ahead than the host immune system. Moreover, the virus
replicates indefinitely in vast majority of infected individuals (Idele et al., 2014). Recent
advancement in medical science has provided evidence that the initial stages of viral infection
via mucosal transmission are comparatively vulnerable to immune intervention. This concept
has lead to the development of vaccine strategy that can elicit responses against the early
stages of viral infection (Picker, Hansen & Lifson, 2012). Other diseases associated with viral
vaccine are influenza, measles mumps rubella (MMR), chicken pox, hepatitis B (Bennett,
Dolin & Blaser, 2014). Here lies the importance of the viral vaccines as it helps in the
treatment of the deadly diseases, which caused recurrent infections and are fatal.
Conclusion
Thus from the above discussion it can be concluded that viral vaccine occupy a
significant portion of vaccine development in immunology. There are different types of virus
vaccines used like live attenuate viral vaccines and viral vector vaccines. The successful use
of the vaccines has been proved helpful to reduce the incidence of several diseases. However,
more research studies are required to be undertaken in order to generate ethically safe viral
vaccines for the treatment of deadly viral disease like HIV AIDS.

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References
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Bennett, J. E., Dolin, R., & Blaser, M. J. (2014). Principles and practice of infectious
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Munoz, F. M., Bond, N. H., Maccato, M., Pinell, P., Hammill, H. A., Swamy, G. K., ... &
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