Analysis of Women's Imprisonment in Australia

This assignment involves a comprehensive analysis of women's imprisonment in Australia, drawing from various sources such as academic journals, reports, and online resources. It requires students to examine the prevalence of women in Australian prisons, their demographic characteristics, and the social implications of their incarceration. The assignment also encourages students to analyze case studies, statistics, and expert opinions to gain a deeper understanding of the complex issues surrounding women's imprisonment in Australia.

Corrections : Theory and Practice
(WOMEN IN PRISON)

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................1
MAIN BODY...................................................................................................................................1
Women in the Criminal Justice System in Australia..............................................................1
Pathways into offending.........................................................................................................1
Profile of corrective system in Australia................................................................................2
Profile of women in prisons...................................................................................................3
Difference between management of male and female prisoners............................................4
'Cons in skirts'.........................................................................................................................5
Management and rehabilitation programs for women offenders...........................................7
REFERENCES................................................................................................................................9

INTRODUCTION
A person who has legally committed a crime and serving a life sentence in a prison
usually known as a prisoner (Cunneen and Rowe, 2014). Criminals or prisoners are sent to
prisons or correction homes for their life improvement and turn offensive behaviour of them
towards social welfare activities. Women offenders is one of the fastest growing segments in
Australia and other countries of prison population (Wilson and et. al., 2017) . The present report
in this regard, is going to make a discussion on Women in Prisoner, in context of criminology
correction of Australia. A research is carried on through reading the various theories of
correction and practicals applications. Here, the main reason to chose this topic is to analyse how
females are treated and highly discriminate in Victoria prisons.
MAIN BODY
Women in the Criminal Justice System in Australia
Women offenders of the prison population are considered as the fastest growing sector in
Australia (Holtfreter and Wattanaporn, 2014). As per Australian Bureau of Statistics (2013),
from over last ten years, population of female prisoners have been increased by 60%, where
aboriginal women in the same, are massively overrepresented. In addition to this, approximately
2% of Australian female population are identified as being of aboriginal while indigenous ones
consist one third of same (Women in Prison Australia, 2017). Aboriginal women are generally
those criminal offenders that associate with extreme poor background, alcoholic and drug related
offences etc. However, there is significant increases from last few decades in imprisonment for
offences within Victoria such as robbery, assault, homicide and theft (Ogloff and et. al., 2017).
Furthermore, as per latest record of Statistical Bureau of Australia (2018) rate of female
prisoners is growing rapidly as compared to males. Here, the most prevalent offences were
includes acts that are intentionally done for causing injuries (near about 22% of total prisoner
population), illicit drug offences (over 16%), sexual assault and physically or mentally harassed
(12%).
Pathways into offending
From the last two decades, it has observed from statistical analysis that numbers of
women offenders in criminal justice system are continuously increasing (Harding, 2018). They
are sentenced for imprisonment for longer periods due to number of reasons (Prisoners in
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Australia, 2018). Mostly are related to drug addiction, alcoholic crimes and more, all are causes
shows that women are on alarming stage in Victoria (Carlton and Segrave, 2016). The drug
addicted women are originally taking drugs or alcoholic substances to escape a life of difficulty
as well as childhood trauma. In addition to this, a lot of women were caught in drug smuggling
as “mules”. Along with this, the major proportion of women in prison have been victims of
domestic violence and poor conditions. Thus, near about of all imprisoned women are belongs
from backward or poor classes and from working class families (Carlton and Russell, 2015).
By considering the statistical data of 2009 NSW about women's profile, it has evaluated
that looking at prison system the distinctions between victim and offenders, becomes more
blurred, as mostly female offenders found guilty due to poverty and alcoholic or drug addiction
(Sindicich and et. al., 2014). Through research on prison system of Australia, it has evaluated
that physical and sexual abusive features are prominently seen in women offenders' lives. Over
64% of female prisoners in Victoria had faced abusive activities in prisons (Santora, Arild
Espnes and Lillefjell, 2014). Along with this, women who had been sentenced for drug related
issues was twice as others, that having history of sexual harassment in prison. In Queensland
prisons, over 42% of women in 2002 were sexually abused before age of 16 and in West
Australia, the percentage of same are near about 57% in childhood stage (Aboriginal Women in
the Australian Prison System, 2014). As per evidence shown in International and Australian
research, it has evaluated that there is a strong link between abusive activities related to drug,
alcoholic, physical and sexual harassment in early childhood age among incarcerated women
(Baldry and Cunneen, 2014). Here, physical and sexual abusiveness have a large negative short
and long-term consequences, such as moving towards criminal activities, low self-esteem and
prostitution. Such kind of studies also describes the factors related to connection between drug
and alcohol abuse as well as criminal offending with life of female offenders in childhood. It
includes psychological distress, poor family background, trauma and other bad life experiences.
In this regard, growing drug dependency has lead women towards theft, drug smuggling or
prostitution for fulfilment of drug habit or sometime give support drug-addicted (Trotter, 2015).
Profile of corrective system in Australia
The operations related to corrective services in Victoria is significantly influenced by,
various components of criminal justice systems. It includes police services, courts and
jurisdictions partners (Davey, Day and Balfour, 2015). The management of prisoners or
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offenders referred to as core business responsibilities of overall corrective services, as they are
serving the orders related to community corrections. Although, the legislative frameworks that
are governing as well as impacting on corrective services, such as life sentencing acts are widely
varied. Therefore, scope of responsibilities of these corrective agencies also varies. For example:
Functions that are mainly administered by corrective services in one jurisdiction may be
administered by a different justice sector agency in another, such as the management of prisoners
held in court cells (Maschi, Marmo and Han, 2014). Corrective services are considered as major
responsibility of State and Territory Governments of Australia. Here, entire jurisdictions during
reporting period, used to maintain the government-operated. However, the community
corrections is majorly responsible for managing a range of non-custodial sanctions as well as
administered the prisoners or offenders who are released into the community after imprisonment.
Therefore, it has evaluated that correction system refers to the most important part of judicial
system of Victoria or Australia (Jewkes, Crewe and Bennett, 2016). It holds the responsibilities
related to enable criminal justice, where both male and female prisoners or offenders from the
community are provided with opportunities like rehabilitation for personal and societal welfare.
The corrective services authorities in this country also manages the offender who are sentenced
for imprisonment, community correction and periodic detention. In correction, state government
authorities of Australia are not only accountable for offenders in custody of prison but also
supervising the offenders in society after their release (Chamberlen, 2016). Therefore, the major
goal of rehabilitation services is to protect the society and members by minimising the criminal
activities..
Profile of women in prisons
The percentage of women offender is less as compared to males in Australia, but rate of
them are comparatively increased more than men prisoners from last few decades i.e. near about
50% (Women's imprisonment and recidivism: Open Prison System. 2017). Women in prison
within Victoria are tend to be relatively of young age, where 45 percent come under category 20-
29 years, 67 percent of 18-35 years and remaining are of age above 35 years (Harding, 2018).
This pattern is therefore, looks similar as for males because people in these age groups become
highly offensive and are likely at risks of involvement in crime. This age distribution means that
many women in prison have dependent children at the time of entering prison: around 60% of
women in prison had children aged less than 16 years according to recent state surveys (Sudbury,
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2014). Females in criminal justice faces substantive problems which are very different from
those of men in custody. It can be in form of both psychological or physical abuse. With carrying
out a study on relationship between recidivism and view of women on services it was found out
that they focus on services which are more reliable, collaborative and understandable through
perspective of women (Moran, 2016). Moreover, it was seen that no one was there to support and
guide them for thing there were not doing correctly and to which are challenging them to
committee offence again. There were no programmes and activities for involvement and
participation of women offenders in prison. Still, the phase hasn’t changes, though there are
certain improvements but fact scenario is the same (Harding, 2018). Along with this, women
prisoners age profile as per received on remand in 2017, can be determined through -
Age Women prisoners (%) Men prisoners (%)
Under 25 years 18.3 19.4
25-34 years 46.2 39.3
35-44 years 26.0 28.2
45-54 years 8.3 10.6
55 years and over 1.3 2.5
Difference between management of male and female prisoners
It has widely described within report of Australian Statistics about criminalised women
that 85% of them are victimised of abusive activities (Holtfreter and Wattanaporn, 2014). By
examining the factors which are contributed to their offending included as criminogenic profile
of them, which is profoundly different as compared to male prisoners. It has mostly occurred due
to difference about past experience of women's related to violence. They also have a history
about adverse experienced of multiple forms as well as incidents of violence (Banks, 2018). In
Queensland, by survey of women prisoners, it has been found that over 89% of female offenders
had been sexually abused and more than 85% of them had faced childhood sexual abuse (Jewkes,
Crewe and Bennett, 2016). It has evaluated that among women offenders, drug offences, sexual
assaults and property offences etc. are made up the high majority of MSc/O i.e. most serious
charges/offences, where a slightly different can be seen as compared to male prisoners through
following table-
MSC/O for prisoners at 30 June 2017 (Women in Victorian Prison System, 2019)
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MSC/O Women Offenders (%) Men Offenders (%)
Drug offences 22.1 13.8
Assault 18..7% 23.7%
Other property offences 12.2% 8.8%
Homicide 11.2% 8.2%
Sex offences 1.6% 14.0%
From this table, it has been interpreted that women spend less time in prison as compared
to men, but 18 percent of women sentenced prisoners in Victoria till 30 June 2017, had an
effective sentence length of five years or more (Chamberlen, 2016). While 34% of female
prisoners had sentenced to less than 1 year as compared to male prisoners. Along with this,
women prisoners in 2017 that were received imprisonment for short periods are almost two-
thirds of total female prisoner population as shown below:
Time different on remand prior to release male and female prisoners from prison,
2017 are shown by-
Time on remand Female Male
Under 1 month 65% 44%
1 less than 3 months 24% 35%
3 less than 6 months 8% 15%
6 months and over 3% 6%
Therefore, it has been interpreted that a large proportion of male prisoners were held for
shorter periods also held on remand for shorter periods but they were less likely than female
offenders who were be in prison for less than one month (Banks, 2018).
'Cons in skirts'
As per Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, it has been analysed through recorded
data related health of prisoners in Australia which is collected by a national survey of public and
private prisons, that women prisoners have higher levels of needs for physical and mental well-
being (Maschi, Marmo and Han, 2014). Most women prisoners are mothers whose children basic
necessities depend on them. In prison, every 2 within 3 have a history of mental health and
physical problems (The Psychological needs of Women in the Criminal Justice System, 2010).
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Due to larger proportion of male offenders, women have accessed less likely towards health care
services, therefore, they have a history of high risk behaviour as well (Harding, 2018). As per
survey on women prisoners' health which was conducted by various corrective agencies, it has
been analysed that women prisoners also have a high-need group as compared with others in
general community. In New South Wales, Western Australia and Queensland, mental health as
well as substance abuse were prominent problems among female prisoners (Davey, Day and
Balfour, 2015). Along with this, more than half of them i.e. 51% to 57% were reported that they
had been diagnosed with depression, heart strokes and other mental health condition. While 30 to
40 percent of female prisoners had attempted suicide at some stage especially when they had
taken place in community instead in prison (Moran, 2016). As compared with men prisoners,
women are considered as having a small minority, therefore, logistic problems are tended to
minimise the range of facilities as well as programs which are available for their welfare.
As per the article given by Anita Mackay (2013), it has been evaluated that women
prisoners in Australia exhibit the high rates of mental health issues. The AIHW (Australian
Institute of Health and Welfare) has profound that over 43% of female offenders had a history of
mental illness and 51% of total women prisoner population had a high level of psychological
distress (Women in Australian prisons and why they need human rights protections, 2013). These
kinds of statistical data, as mentioned about World Health Organisation has reflected that the
nature of imprisonment is more likely to be worsen for women prisoners’ mental health (Trotter,
2015). The reasons behind same is the factors that includes lack of necessities, disciplinary
regime, limited or less interaction with surrounding people, society members, family ones and
more. All these factors tend to move women towards high levels of depression, violence, self-
harm, aggression and suicide. Since women imprisonment rate is continuously growing
therefore, there are various laws enacted that provide them human rights (Sindicich and et. al.,
2014). Australia is a one of the party member of ICCPR i.e. International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights that contains a number of provisions which are relevant to people in prisons. It
includes Article No. 7, Article No. 10 (1) and 10 (3) and more. Here, Article 7 provides rights to
women that no one will be subjected to inhumanity, torture, cruel or more during imprisonment.
While Article 10(1) shows that all women and men prisoners deprived of their liberty and they
all should be treated with humanity and respect related to inherent dignity of the human person
(Baldry and Cunneen, 2014). Along with this, Article 10(3) states that the penitentiary system
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must comprise with equal treatment of prisoners. It is mainly aims to run programs for
reformation and social rehabilitation of prisoners.
Management and rehabilitation programs for women offenders
Many women in prison within Victoria have a history of sexual assault, physically torture
or abusiveness, psychological distress and psychiatric disorders, including all other conditions
which can complicate the provision as well as recognition of medical care for a range of chronic
medical conditions (Santora, Arild Espnes and Lillefjell, 2014). Drug dependence for an
instance, can complicate the management of such medical conditions in the community due to
competing needs for housing, employment, drug treatment and more (Carlton and Russell, 2015).
Along with this, drug addiction and alcoholic dependence are the major factors behind criminal
activities of women offenders that cause a number of mental and physical health problems, due
to overdose, alcoholic hepatitis, sharing syringes that may cause blood-borne infections.
Therefore, in order to improve life of prisoners and provide them better living of standard,
Government of Australia has run a number of rehabilitation programs. It includes how to prepare
itself to fight against domestic violence; anger management; prevention from alcoholic and drugs
addiction; enhance cognitive skills; improve living skills; literacy and numeracy (Sudbury,
2014). These programs are generally established the fair system for both male and female
prisoner populations. In context with women offenders, these programs are designed to enhance
self-esteem, parenting, skills and change, communication and assertiveness, life choices and
stress management (Carlton and Segrave, 2016).
Here, Correctional Services in Victoria has a comprehensive collection of a range of core
programs for women offenders. It includes Living Skills Programs; Literacy and Continuous
Learning Programs; Substance Abuse Programs; Survivors of Abuse and Trauma Programs;
Mother-child Program and others (Ogloff and et. al., 2017). In this regard, living skills programs
are designed in similar manner, in scope to those for male offenders. But these programs have
been modified as per special demand and needs of women, because they have a huge experience
of violence. Along with this, substance abuse programs are designed for women offenders
(Cunneen and Rowe, 2014). For this purpose, given program includes Psycho-education and
awareness as well as more in-depth therapeutic programs, which are mainly focused on
emotional regulation functions of substance use. These programs are also helped women
prisoners to deal with violence, harassment and other activities, that impact negatively on their
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state of mind. While literacy and continuous programs are designed for fulfilment of personal
needs of female offenders by increasing their employment skills. Other than this, mother-child
programs are clearly focused on developing skills and relapse prevention for survival as well as
get independence in the community (Wilson and et. al., 2017).
For understanding how the prison system of Australia related to punishment and
rehabilitation works, two main tasks were undertaken:
First task is related with analysing the prevailing management style within prison of
Australia, where managing the prison and rehabilitation of women prisoners are the main
responsibilities of agencies dealing under corrective systems. Here, undertaking the history,
personal needs and necessities of women, management of corrective system has designed the
rehabilitations programs for increasing the skills and resources of women prisoners in order to
meet their needs (Women in Prison in Australia, 2017). It includes training and learning
programs which are mainly dominated to increase skill of women offenders while they are in
prison.
The another task is related with rehabilitation that endorse an opportunity for women
prisoner to restart their life with a new phase and leaving their past criminal record or history of
abusiveness behind them. As the main causes behind offence of women offenders are physical
and mental abuse, domestic violence, family negligence and emotional distress. Therefore,
programmes are run during imprison period for improving mental trauma and emotional stamina
of people, so that they can overcome from all the issues they have faced in their life. Rehabilition
and self-improvement programs also tightens the relationship and interaction of society with
women prisoners.
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REFERENCES
Books and Journals
Banks, C., 2018. Criminal justice ethics: Theory and practice. Sage Publications.
Holtfreter, K. and Wattanaporn, K. A., 2014. The transition from prison to community initiative:
An examination of gender responsiveness for female offender reentry. Criminal Justice
and Behavior. 41(1). pp.41-57.
Harding, R., 2018. Private prisons and public accountability. Routledge.
Moran, D., 2016. Carceral geography: Spaces and practices of incarceration. Routledge.
Sudbury, J., 2014. Global lockdown: Race, gender, and the prison-industrial complex.
Routledge.
Harding, R., 2018. Private prisons and public accountability. Routledge.
Chamberlen, A., 2016. Embodying prison pain: Women’s experiences of self-injury in prison
and the emotions of punishment. Theoretical Criminology. 20(2). pp.205-219.
Jewkes, Y., Crewe, B. and Bennett, J. eds., 2016. Handbook on prisons. Routledge.
Maschi, T., Marmo, S. and Han, J., 2014. Palliative and end-of-life care in prisons: A content
analysis of the literature. International journal of prisoner health. 10(3). pp.172-197.
Davey, L., Day, A. and Balfour, M., 2015. Performing desistance: how might theories of
desistance from crime help us understand the possibilities of prison
theatre?. International journal of offender therapy and comparative criminology. 59(8).
pp.798-809.
Trotter, C., 2015. Working with involuntary clients: A guide to practice. Routledge.
Sindicich, N. and et. al., 2014. Offenders as victims: post-traumatic stress disorder and substance
use disorder among male prisoners. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology.
25(1). pp.44-60.
Baldry, E. and Cunneen, C., 2014. Imprisoned Indigenous women and the shadow of colonial
patriarchy. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology. 47(2). pp.276-298.
Santora, L., Arild Espnes, G. and Lillefjell, M., 2014. Health promotion and prison
settings. International journal of prisoner health. 10(1). pp.27-37.
Carlton, B. and Russell, E., 2015. ‘A Gender for Change’. Cycles of Women’s Penal Reform and
Reconfigurations of Anti-Prison Resistance in Victoria, Australia. Champ pénal/Penal
field, 12.
Carlton, B. and Segrave, M., 2016. Rethinking women’s post-release reintegration and
‘success’. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology. 49(2). pp.281-299.
Ogloff, J. R. and et. al., 2017. Assessing the mental health, substance abuse, cognitive
functioning, and social/emotional well-being needs of aboriginal prisoners in
Australia. Journal of Correctional Health Care. 23(4). pp.398-411.
Cunneen, C. and Rowe, S., 2014. Changing narratives: Colonised peoples, criminology and
social work. International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy. 3(1).
pp.49-67.
Wilson, M. and et. al., 2017. ‘You’re a woman, a convenience, a cat, a poof, a thing, an idiot’:
Transgender women negotiating sexual experiences in men’s prisons in
Australia. Sexualities. 20(3). pp.380-402.
Online
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Aboriginal Women in the Australian Prison System. 2014. [Online] Available
Through:<http://rightnow.org.au/opinion-3/aboriginal-women-in-the-australian-prison-
system/>.
The Psychological needs of Women in the Criminal Justice System. 2010. [Online] Available
Through:<https://web.archive.org/web/20170327140051/http:/mhcc.org.au/media/
11944/psychological-needs-of-women-in-the-cjs-27-05-2010.pdf>.
Prisoners in Australia. 2018. [Online] Available
Through:<https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/4517.0>.
Women in Victorian Prison System. 2019. [Online] Available Through:
<https://www.corrections.vic.gov.au/publications-manuals-and-statistics/women-in-the-
victorian-prison-system>.
Women in Prison Australia. 2017. [Online] Available Through:<https://njca.com.au/wp-
content/uploads/2017/12/Kilroy-Debbie-Women-in-Prison-in-Australia-paper.pdf>.
Women's imprisonment and recidivism: Open Prison System. 2017. [Online] Available
Through:<https://researchonline.nd.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1178&context=theses>.
Women in Australian prisons and why they need human rights protections. 2013. [Online]
Available Through:< http://asiapacific.anu.edu.au/regarding-rights/2013/10/04/women-in-
australian-prisons-and-why-they-need-human-rights-protections/ >.
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