Understanding Educational Research: Dissertation Review on Stuttering

This report provides a comprehensive review of a dissertation titled “Try to relax” - A survey study in Sweden among native Swedes and Arabic immigrants concerning views on stuttering. The dissertation investigates attitudes toward stuttering and people who stutter (PWS) within different cultural groups, specifically native Swedes and Arab immigrants. The review begins with a brief summary of the dissertation's aims, methods, and findings, which include the use of the POSHA-S questionnaire to assess attitudes. The report then delves into the major approaches to conducting research, focusing on the philosophical perspectives of ontology, epistemology, and methodology, particularly post-positivism and postcolonial theory. It evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of the study, including issues of generalization and potential biases. The review critiques the study's epistemological stance and methodological choices, considering their implications for the validity and reliability of the findings, and the overall conclusions regarding cultural influences on attitudes toward stuttering. The analysis highlights the importance of considering cultural contexts and the potential for negative stereotypes in research.

Understanding Educational
Research

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................1
1. Brief summary.............................................................................................................................1
2. Major approaches to conducting research ...................................................................................3
3. Selection of criteria .....................................................................................................................9
4. Strengths and weaknesses of study..............................................................................................9
CONCLUSION..............................................................................................................................11
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................13

A review of a dissertation: “Try to relax” - A survey study in Sweden among native Swedes
and Arabic immigrants concerning views on stuttering.
INTRODUCTION
The topic of the dissertation is related to my research interest which is communication
disorder and I looked at stuttering in my master dissertation and I will do more work in the same
topic in my PhD. I think by evaluating this dissertation I can build some knowledge about the
multiple factors can affect the quality of findings, for example, when the researcher does not
fully understand the possible factors affecting participants’ answers that can lead to
inappropriate ideas about what influenced participants’ answers (Chrisman, 2003). The second
main reason could be described as personal: for those from Arab backgrounds, it is important to
critique this work because it presents findings that display Arab people in a negative light
without strong evidence. The writers also deny some of the limitations of their work. For
example, they knew that the Arab group with whom they worked was not representative due to
the small number of Arabs who responded to their request for participants (seven people), which
should have prevented them from generalizing their findings. However, the writers chose to try
to generalize their findings in spite of this and make comparisons between Arabs and native
Swedish speakers throughout the dissertation. This is likely to promote negative stereotypes
about Arab people. The paradigms and methods used in this report
Postcolonial theory were chosen as approaches for this piece because those two theories
offer the most appropriate paradigms for promoting fairness to a minority group (in this case,
Arabs) (Krishna, 1999). Following postcolonial approaches and ways of thinking, this review is
divided into three main parts: firstly, a summary of the dissertation; secondly, classification of
the philosophical perspective, which appears to include ontological, epistemological, and
methodological perspectives; and finally, consideration of the strengths and weaknesses of the
study, including reliability and validity. Using this theory is effective and thus it aids in obtaining
better understanding regarding assessing the aim of the research. Also, it is helpful in identifying
the strengths and weaknesses of research in regard to improve individual understanding.
1. Brief summary
Nilsson and Wetterling (2013) hypothesize that the ability of people who stutter, referred
to as PWS, to overcome stuttering can be affected by others’ attitudes. These attitudes can, in
1

turn, be shaped by the social and cultural background such attitudes arise within. Culture reflects
people’s behaviours and beliefs, which are the most likely sources of influence on attitudes and
perspectives relevant to stuttering and PWS, according to Nilsson and Wetterling (2013). In
addition, the study claims that stuttering therapies and treatments may, therefore, be influenced
by culture.
To measure people’s attitudes, Nilsson and Wetterling translated a questionnaire, “Public
Opinion Survey of Human Attributes – Stuttering” (POSHA-S), from English to Swedish; they
also used an Arabic version for Arab people who had immigrated to Sweden. Those people were
described in the dissertation as people from an Arabic background (Arab-immigrant). Due to the
low number of participants, the authors created an online version but only in the Swedish
language.
The main aims of the study were (a) to research dispositions and convictions towards
Stuttering and PWS among both local Swedes and individuals who moved to Sweden from
Arabic-speaking nations, and (b) whether these mentalities and convictions varied between the
two groups of people.
Another point to the study is to translate the POSHA-S into Swedish with the specific end
goal of adding to the global information bank of institutionalized examination of attitudes and
understanding about stuttering and PWS. The researchers contacted schools around Sweden to
recruit participants for the study. Schools received either a paper version or an online version.
The participants were 42 native Swedish, 7 Arab-immigrants, and 13 people from other countries
(immigrants-other), 62 subjects in total.
The outcomes demonstrate that, based on responses to this questionnaire, local Swedes
have a generally positive and accurate view of stuttering and PWS; however, the attitudes
towards the perception of PWS ability to undertake paid employment were negative. The Arab
respondents displayed more negative and mistaken views on specific items, particularly with
regard to the reasons for stuttering and the qualities ascribed to PWS. However, despite the
authors’ insistence on doing so, making general inferences from this group is ill advised, as the
small size of the group makes the measurable power too low (Ellis, 2010). The third group,
immigrants-other, showed more positive attitudes but was nevertheless not treated as the main
group in this dissertation, which focused on native Swedish and immigrants-Arab groups. An
2

example of this is the title of the piece, which only mentions Swedish and Arab groups despite
the third group being clearly present in the results.
2. Major approaches to conducting research
Firstly, the process of exploration includes examining the philosophical perspective,
which looks at how a researcher chooses to direct research in terms of selecting an appropriate
strategy and methodology, as well as examining the respectability and authenticity of the study
(Mertens, 2014). Firstly, looking at the ontology and epistemology, ontology is the investigation
of being. Ontological presumptions are concerned with what constitutes reality; they look at what
is. Researchers ought to take a position that allies with their impression of how things truly exist
and function. Epistemology is linked to the nature and types of learning (Cohen, Manion, &
Morrison, 2007).
The route through which philosophy and epistemology are addressed in Nilsson and
Wetterling (2013) gives a clear idea of the philosophical viewpoint the dissertation adheres to; in
this case, it appears to be post-positivism. Post-positivism, as Willis (2007) portrays it, is a type
of paradigm that follows similar ideas as positivism however, post-positives permits more
communication between researchers and their subjects. It plans to create an objective and
generalizable learning about social examples, looking to confirm the accuracy and applicability
of widespread properties and laws and to examine the person among the pre-determined
categories. It utilizes additional techniques, such as creating a whole picture along with
subjective strategies such as talking and member perception by others (Creswell, 2008). Post
positivism is considered as the metatheoretical which helps in critiques and also amends
positivism. While, positivism approach believes that the scholar and the researched person are
independent of each other. Thus, it can be stated that it is totally different from positivism.
The Ontological Perspective
This dissertation compared groups and attempted to give each group a suitably adapted
version of PSOHA-S to get accurate data; however, it was always likely to be difficult to make a
clear connection between cultural backgrounds and possible attitudes toward stuttering and PWS.
There is little evidence to suggest that answers chosen by each group were simply a result of
cultural background, as they clam, as these could equally result from a range of other factors
such as genes, gender, or age.
3

Adopting a post-colonial view, it can be said that Nilsson and Wetterling (2013) views
participants only in terms of cultural background and not at a personal level. Each individual is
seen as a part of a homogenous group and unable to work autonomously without the larger social
grouping (Allen, 2000 cited in Kanu, 2011). It can be assessed that through reviewing the the
study by carrying out a postcolonial approach helps in carrying out academic discipline which
helps in analysing, explaining and responding towards the cultural legacy. Through adopting
such approach it aids in strengthening the study and thus researchers position themselves within
the paradigm. Thus, it assists scholar to identify the cultural background of the study at the
personal level and thus work autonomously without the larger social groups. Postcolonialism
literature assists in identifying the literature and thus strengthens the position in regard to
improve the understanding and also communicate in an effective and efficient manner.
The Epistemological Perspective
The epistemological view appears to be a form of modified objectivism, which implies a
certain level of subjectivity; the researcher’s knowledge is accepted as having an influence on the
research, although attempts are made to minimise this effect and allow the piece to come closer
to objectivity (Hamlin, 2015; O'Connor & Netting, 2011). This is fundamentally the same as the
positivist approach of looking at mean scores, even though it relies on non-comparable data that
contrast with each other in several ways apart from proximity to the factors whose impacts are
being tested.
Positivism as an epistemology depends on experience as a main way of learning. This
means that it incorporates an extensive variety of essential and critical ideas, such as the concept
that cause, time, and space are not affected by the experience. Furthermore, positivism predicts
that a wide range of procedures can cause specific variations in the activities people undertake or
the connections between people. As such, research discoveries in positivism studies are
particularly enlightening since they must acknowledge A wide range of issues such as it sets out
to carry out such positivism and thus develop uncertainties that competes the theories in relation
to believe specific approach and thus carry out effective knowledge and thus, it cannot be
ignored ("Positivism - Research Methodology", 2016).
On the one hand, following a post-positivist approach allows the researcher to have an
impact on the participants and on the object being studied (Mertens, 2014). This approach is
exemplified in writings that explore the convictions, practices, and qualities of various
4

ethnocultural groups. Al-Krenawi and Graham (2003), as cited in Williams, (2006) refer to
points of view gained from the perspective of specific social gatherings, and these viewpoints
can also be seen in the light of the understanding of intangibles (Al-Krenawi and Graham, 1999,
as cited in Williams, 2006). It is broadly recognized that social learning based on group profiles
and comparable sources can promote generalizations and be founded on data that is skewed and
unrepresentative (Bonder et al., 2001, as cited in Williams, 2006).
While attitudes to stuttering in the Middle East have not been broadly investigated,
popular feelings about incapacities throughout the world are frequently negative (Sharifzadeh,
2004). Nilsson and Wetterling (2013), as considered from a postcolonial point of view, can,
therefore, be said to be forcing non-Swedish readers (particularly those from Arab and other
group backgrounds) to get information about their attitudes toward stuttering and PWS from a
Swedish viewpoint. That, in turn, can lead to making non-Swedish readers see themselves
negatively reflecting the findings of the Swedish study.
It can be concluded from the study that researcher aims to select positivism theory as it
assists in describing the research outcomes. Thus, it is useful for scholar to position the research
around such approach and thus develop appropriate philosophical perspectives and positioning
the study in regard to attain success. Postcolonialism is considered as the broader aspect which
helps in ensuring reader to provide effective philosophical literature and thus assess the
importance of communication without facing any problem.
The Methodological approach
POSHA-S is an instrument for measuring the public’s attitudes toward PWS and for
measuring knowledge about stuttering, its causes, and treatments. It was originally produced in
the USA a few years ago and is intended to be used worldwide as a "standard" instrument so that
standardized or relations of examinations around the globe are significant (St Louis, 2012). Two
pilot studies, in English and other languages, have been done to check that such a generalization
is possible, as well as to review the instrument and adapt sections that were hard to decipher. The
pilot studies found that the connections between similar respondents (intrapersonal
dependability) were calculated at around 0.8 and that the relationships among various
respondents (interpersonal unwavering quality) were around 0.5. The 0.5 relationship was
translated as normal societal impacts (St Louis, 2011). However, additional information arose
about links between the respondents’ approaches to life and other individual traits such as
5

emotional instability. After the results of the pilot were analyzed, an amended form was
approved and tested for consistency and quality (St Louis, 2011), creating an instrument for
measuring the public’s attitudes toward PWS, and for measuring levels of public information
about stuttering.
Although giving Arab immigrants an Arabic vision should be appreciated in terms of
respect for their language and trying to facilitate the use of the questionnaire for them, a
postcolonial view might argue that those who received the Arabic version of POSHA-S may, in
fact, read Swedish better than written Arabic because they are currently studying in Swedish
schools. It is mainly considered as a postcolonial view in respect of assessing human
consequences of external control and economic exploitation of home people as well as their
lands. In addition, only the Arab group received a version in an additional language; the
immigrants-other group and the native Swedish group all received the Swedish version. This
well-intentioned segregation might differentiate the Arab group despite their desire to fit in with
the native group. Therefore, it is essential for Arab people to improve their communication and
thus develop interaction so that positive outcomes can be generated which results in improving
business performance and thus attain desired results.
Furthermore, not all Arab countries share the same culture and background. Many Arab
countries such as Egypt, Morocco, and Syria were colonized by western countries such as Great
Britain, Spain, and France. That colonization shaped and changed their cultures and backgrounds
because colonizing influences tend to control important institutions such as education (Said,
2003). This means that it is possible to say that western countries have influenced at least a part
of Arab cultural identity.
There is also a question of how long the immigrants responding to the study have lived in
the host country and how they are both affected by and affect that country. During the last three
decades, for example, Spain has seen the development of a solid Moroccan worker community
(Chacón Rodríguez, 2003. These migratory communities have had a great impact on the
demographic, ethnic, religious, and phonetic make-up of Spanish society, redefining the limits of
ideas of place, citizenship, and character. There are various researches being done in relation to
the prevalent issue and thus it is essential for researcher to identify the issue faced by individual
and thus undertake effective study so that best results can be carried out.
6

The authors seem to be aware of the ethical issues in most parts of the dissertation; for
example, the Swedish rendition of the POSHA-S was translated by the creators of the publication
and utilized under official authorization from Kenneth O. St. Louis and Popular Publishing
Company in Morgantown, West Virginia, USA. It was then translated back into English by a
local bilingual individual, which is a technique that had already been utilised when the POSHA-
S was first translated into various languages (St Louis, 2011; Özdemir, et al., 2011), in order to
confirm that no data had been changed significantly in the interpretation. In addition, they tried
to ensure that the POSHA-S was amended to suit the Swedish context.
However, the methods used to translate POSHA-S into Arabic were not as rigorous as
those used for the Swedish translation. A few amendments to adapt the instrument to Kuwaiti
society were made (Abdalla and St Louis, 2012), but a single country cannot represent all Arab
societies, and the Kuwaiti people cannot represent all Arab people. Looking at Kuwait’s history,
from 1899 to 1961, it was colonized by a British protectorate; in addition, the Kuwaiti people
experienced the Iraq-Kuwaiti war from 1990 to 1991. Nevertheless, Kuwait can be considered a
rich country because of its oil reserves. Thus a version of POSHA-A adapted only to the Kuwaiti
populace might not be the most appropriate version for other Arabs from different countries. For
example, some are closer to European countries, such as Morocco; some Moroccan people may
find a version written in Spanish or French easier to use than an Arabic document. Here, in the
study Arab participants are involved as they are immigrants and thus provides their view in
regard to stuttering. Thus, such participants are involved in regard to identify their views
regarding the subject and thus attain diverse opinions.
In summary, The 2013 Nilsson and Wetterling study, used “cultural and social reality”, as a basic
influence on human behaviours. Following their chosen ontological and epistemological points
of view, they claim that people’s attitudes towards stuttering and PWS are mainly shaped by
their cultural backgrounds, and to support this, they try to make a comparison between the
Swedish and Arab group. However, unfortunately, the relationship between people’s attitudes
and their social backgrounds is not easy to specifically anticipate or observe. Culture is hard to
measure because an estimation of culture cannot be based on only one measurement such as
responses to money or any other individual point; such measures must be, of necessity, multi-
dimensional assessments ("Can Culture be Measured", 2016). This calls the findings of this
study, which asserts the probability that culture influences people's attitudes, into question. In
7

short, Nilsson and Wetterling (2013) claim that a group of people who share the same cultural
background would carry the same attitudes toward PWS, however, some may argue that
individuals’ attitudes are shaped mostly by other factors, for example, their genes (Thomas and
Bouchard, 2004). This study is considered as the deterministic view and therefore it is essential
to provide different views to the participants in regard to provide wide choices or varieties.
Therefore, it is essential for researcher to assess the results of the study up to a great extent and
thus carry out best results. The Nilsson and Wetterling (2013) study can also be linked to Post-
colonial theory in terms of impact on the readers and its effect in terms of developing
stereotypes for non-Swedish people (Arab-immigrants and immigrants-other).
Structuralism of the world relates to the establishment of first vs the third world and is an
example of this – of what?. The “third world” theory increased investment in both academic and
political settings as a defense against colonial patriot developments. Arab countries were
allocated to this “third world” by those countries with additional power, and this meant that most
studies done on middle-eastern countries have been done by western people (Said, 2003). Arab
people should, therefore, research and question what western studies have said about them, as
such structuralism can mean that the group who has the power can shape and influence the
identity of the less powerful group.
Nilsson and Wetterling (2013) present their findings of Arab negative attitudes as if such
negativity is an inherent part of Arab nature. When considered in terms of structuralism, the
more powerful group, in this case, can be the Swedish authors who are shaping the identity of the
less powerful group, the Arab-immigrants, and immigrants-other groups. Said (2003) explains
that less powerful group may, therefore, see themselves portrayed negatively as an “other”.
Orientalism is based upon an ontological and epistemological distinction made between the
orient and the occident (Said, 2003. P2).
Edward Said (2003) claimed that the European idea refers to the way that Europeans see
themselves as a superior compared to all non-European people and countries; this could also be
referred to as a cultural hegemony, dominant group in society, including fundamentally
however not only the governments, keep up their predominance by securing the 'unconstrained
assent' of subordinate gatherings, including the working class, through the arranged development
of a political and ideological accord which joins both prevailing and ruled gatherings.
8

Nilsson and Wetterling’s (2013) study is a Western study that tries to link Arab attitudes
to their cultural background, and its readers from Arab backgrounds are forced to take a
viewpoint about their own cultural background, and its impact on attitudes, from a western
perspective. Cultures differ in their social norms and values, which can mean that what is
considered to be normal in Arab societies might not be normal in Western societies (Karp &
Brockington, 2005; Menjívar & Salcido, 2002).
These factors affect the overall evaluation of the piece, which must be considered from
ontological, epistemological, and methodological perspectives; basic post-positivism and a post-
colonial hypothesis are also extremely relevant to any analysis of the Nilsson and Wetterling,
(2013) study, despite slight deviations among these approaches.
3. Selection of criteria
Post-positivism and postcolonial approaches propose an altered objectivity that helps
promote research by empowering objectivity while keeping in mind the goal of acquiring a
precise comprehension of social reality. This review follow the two conspicuous criteria for
assessing quantitative research – Reliability and Validity, as exemplified by Mertens (2010), in
order to evaluate Nilsson and Wetterling’s (2013) study in term of how reliable the measures of
an exploration are and the generalizability of the study findings.
4. Strengths and weaknesses of study
Reliability
Reliability is considered as the phenomenon and thus overall consistency of measuring
the results. However, a measures is said to possess a high reliability. Thus, it is helpful in
producing similar outcomes under consistent conditions and thus best and reliable results can be
attained.
In terms of collecting data, Nilsson and Wetterling (2013) used a closed-ended
questionnaire; several options were given, from which the participants could choose their
answers. The participants were given the POSHA-S questionnaire either in paper or online form,
and they were asked to take them home and let other adults participate in the survey. This was
because the participants were felt to be more likely to complete the questionnaires in their own
time, as long as they were sure of being anonymised. This was intended to allow them to feel
9

free to answer honestly without being affected by considerations of social desirability that could
cause them to give placatory as opposed to genuine replies.
The web version Nilsson and Wetterling created may be significant in terms of them
collecting real data. Online surveys are generally utilized as estimations. These surveys can
cover broad areas and can upgrade the meticulousness of a strategy to give additional objectivity
since online estimations can produce almost instant results. This differs from offline surveys,
which may be influenced by the analyzers’ personal encounters and inclinations.
Nilsson and Wetterling (2013) aimed to compare Swedish and Arab attitudes towards
stuttering and PWS and to link the difference in their attitudes to their cultural backgrounds.
However, the study does not give clear information about which Arab countries the participants
come from. UNESCO recognizes twenty-one Arab states ("What Are the Functions of the United
Nations?", 2016), and most of these Arab countries differ in terms of important factors such as
cultural background and historical and geographical situations.
The Arab participants were from “Arabic speaking countries”, but the link between
language and cultural background is not made clear. Furthermore, some Arabic-speaking
countries have lost a great deal of their Arabic language due to western colonialism. For
example, Moroccan Arabic is not easily understood by non-Moroccan Arab people Through
carrying out the research it can be stated that the study is reliable as it produces valid and reliable
facts and also assess that Arab immigrants are facing issue regarding stuttering.
Validity
Validity is considered as the term that identifies the value or assesses the tool in regard to
measure the degree to which the tool measures regarding what it claims and thus assess the
accuracy of the study.
In terms of identifying the relationship between people’s attitudes toward stuttering and
PWS and their cultural backgrounds, the measurement used in this study cannot be trusted
because it seems to be interpreted by the researchers without any clear evidence. In addition, the
resources used in the literature review and background seem to be collected from studies which
were done in a range of different Arab countries, but no similarities are highlighted to support
the use of this evidence. The schools involved in the study were chosen randomly, but it might
have been better if they had picked schools with more Arab students. It is not a great stretch to
10