Aircraft Manufacture Project Assignment

Aircraft Manufacture Project 1
AIRCRAFT MANUFACTURE PROJECT
Name
Course
Professor
University
City/state
Date

Aircraft Manufacture Project 2
Executive Summary
The increasing demand for air travel across the world is continuing to foster growth of aviation
industry and this is not without its challenges. One of the major challenges is environmental
impacts of aircraft manufacture and operation. Design process plays a major role in alleviating
these impacts. The aim of this report is to investigate the preliminary design stage, detailed
design and development stages, and system test, evaluation & validation and optimization
processes of an aircraft manufacture project. These processes are very critical in successful
implementation of an aircraft manufacture project. The design team together with other
stakeholders should cooperate and coordinate to ensure that the processes are undertaken
effectively. The report has also identified essential human factors to be considered when
designing an aircraft.

Aircraft Manufacture Project 3
Table of Contents
1. Introduction.......................................................................................................................................4
2. Preliminary design.............................................................................................................................5
3. Detailed design and development.....................................................................................................7
4. System test, evaluation & validation and optimization...................................................................8
5. Human factors...................................................................................................................................9
6. Conclusion........................................................................................................................................10
References................................................................................................................................................11

Aircraft Manufacture Project 4
1. Introduction
Climate change has become a major threat to global population because of its impacts on
the environment, economy and society (Estrada, et al., 2017); (Luber & Prudent, 2009); (Mishra,
et al., 2010); (Rai & Rai, 2013) (Wang, et al., 2014). As a result of this, stakeholders in every
sector are making efforts to minimize the impacts of this phenomenon. Aviation is one of the
forms of transport that are energy intensive and produce a lot of greenhouse gases (Taber, 2010).
It is estimated that 2% of global carbon dioxide emissions resulting from human activities are
contributed by aviation industry (ATAG, 2017) and this is projected to hit 5% by 2050 (Banu,
2012). As global population and development continue to increase, demand for air transport is
also rising rapidly, resulting to a possibility of higher greenhouse gas emissions. This has
prompted aircraft manufacturers to develop various practices of reducing energy consumption
and greenhouse gas emissions during production and operation of aircrafts. Some of these
approaches include: use of renewable energy, use of recycled and recyclable materials, lean
manufacturing, use of light and composite materials and nanomaterials, application of advanced
technological and energy efficient processes; improve aircraft engine designs, increase fuel
efficiency, etc. (Beck, et al., 2011); (Lee & Mo, 2011). Governments have also developed
policies aimed at monitoring and controlling emissions from the aviation industry (Capoccitti, et
al., 2010); (Sikorska, 2015); (Zheng, et al., 2017).
Irrespective of the approach chosen to minimize emissions in aviation industry, design
processes of aircrafts are very critical and largely influences the success or failure of minimizing
emissions during manufacturing and operating phases. During design process, the design team
comprehensively analyzes various technical and performance parameters of the aircraft
throughout its lifecycle thus making decisions that will help achieve predetermined emission

Aircraft Manufacture Project 5
targets. This is the approach that is being used by companies and organizations promoting the
concept of green aircrafts, such as National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and
Boeing (Gonzalez, 2017); (MacDonald, 2015).
The aim of this report is to analyze the preliminary design, detailed design and
development, and system test, evaluation & validation and optimization of an aircraft
manufacturing project. The report also discusses essential human factors to be considered when
executing an aircraft manufacturing project. These are very essential process in aircraft
manufacturing project especially if the project aims at improving resource efficiency and safety
and comfort of aircraft users, and cutting down costs and greenhouse gas emissions.
The key design processes of an aircraft are shown in Figure 1 below
Figure 1: Key design processes of an aircraft (Domun, 2016)
2. Preliminary design
In preliminary design stage, the design team is tasked to create a fundamental proof of
concept that was developed or chosen from the conceptual design phase (Domun, 2016). The
design team uses advanced analytical method to calculate various requirements and parameters
that the aircraft has to comply with so as to fly and perform its intended function effectively
(Schwinn, et al., 2016). Some of the requirements and parameters that the design team
determines include; flight mechanics, aerodynamics, stability, tunnel testing and structural
stresses, among others. In general, preliminary design stage is where the design team proves the

Aircraft Manufacture Project 6
feasibility of the aircraft concept developed in the conceptual design stage. In other words, the
team has to demonstrate how the preferred concept will meet the performance requirements of
the aircraft, how it can be manufactured using available methods and resources, and also identify
any constraints related to manufacturing process of the aircraft. An aircraft comprises of different
modules and subsystems, each with varied specifications. It is in this stage that the design team
defines all the necessary specifications of the aircraft. This includes: system specifications that
entails technical, performance, functional, support and maintenance features of the aircraft,
development specifications that entails the need for new research design or development
mechanisms, product specifications that entails stipulations of each module and subsystem,
process specifications that entails the necessary services and processes for the manufacture and
operation of the aircraft such as testing services, production services, maintenance services, etc.,
and material specifications that entails a list of resources or supplies needed to create the aircraft.
The key components that the design team analyzes in preliminary design stage include:
wings, fuselage, control surfaces (rudder, stabilizers, elevators, aileron, trim tab, etc.), power
plant devices, propulsion devices (propeller), lift control devices (flap, spoiler and slat), landing
gear (main gear and nose gear), cockpit (navigation, information and communication devices)
and systems (hydraulic, pneumatic, electric etc.). The analyses in this stage are done based on
these design criteria: usability, functional capability, producibility, reliability, security, safety,
maintainability, serviceability, supportability, durability, affordability, interoperability,
sustainability and disposability. For this to be achieved, professionals from different engineering
fields must be involved and work together as a team. The key professionals to be involved
include those from the following fields: design engineering, software engineering, manufacturing
engineering, quality engineering, environmental engineering, value engineering, maintainability

Aircraft Manufacture Project 7
engineering, logistics engineering, reliability engineering, safety and security engineering, and
ergonometric engineering. Last but not least is that every activity finalized in preliminary design
stage is reviewed comprehensively for improvement in subsequent stages of the project.
3. Detailed design and development
This stage is largely about fabrication of the aircraft that is to be manufactured. Here, the
design team uses existing strategies and policies to fabricate the real aircraft. The team
determines the best design, size, number and location of various components of the aircraft.
Various aspects of the aircraft such as structural, aerodynamic, performance and control that
were identified in the preliminary design stage are also tested. Generally, detailed design stage is
where the designs developed in the preliminary design stage are turned into a functioning
aircraft, in terms of mockups and models (engineering and prototype), after creating several
simulations (Monroe Aerospace, 2017).
Detailed design stage is iterative and completed by following eight steps (Blanchard &
Fabrycky, 2010). First is to create proper design requirements of aircraft components centered on
the specifications that were developed in preliminary design stage. Second is to carry out
necessary technical works. Third is to find the best approach of integrating all components of the
aircraft that will ensure maximum efficiency during manufacturing and operation phases. Fourth
is to identify suitable engineering software and design tools for the project, such as CAD
(computer aided design) software, CAE (computer aided engineering) software, lean
manufacturing techniques, etc. Fifth is to use the chosen design and engineering tools and
systems to prepare necessary documents and designs. The documents include list of aircraft
components, cost estimations, programme or schedule of the project, analyses and reports. Sixth
is the development process, which entails creating mockups, models and simulations of the

Aircraft Manufacture Project 8
aircraft to be manufactured. The simulations are used to establish the functional capability and
producibility of the aircraft. Seventh is to analyze the design and develop reviews. Last but not
least is to evaluate the design reviews and feedback, and use them to make appropriate
improvements or changes to the aircraft design.
4. System test, evaluation & validation and optimization
These are also very important processes when designing an aircraft. The necessary
testing, evaluation and validation processes are identified during conceptual design stage so that
the design team can have adequate time to prepare on how to perform them. Preparation also
entails identifying the required equipment, tools, personnel, training and facilities for each test,
evaluation and validation processes. Testing process basically involves subjecting individual
components of the aircraft then subsystems and the whole aircraft so as to determine whether
they meet or fail to meet the requirements of the project, including design specifications. Some
of the tests performed include: structural tests, usability tests, functional tests, producibility tests,
reliability tests, security and safety tests, software system tests, maintainability tests, control
tests, serviceability tests, supportability tests, durability tests, affordability tests, interoperability
tests, sustainability tests, disposability tests and environmental tests. The results obtained from
each of these tests are evaluated and used to validate or invalidate the individual components,
subsystems or the whole aircraft. Any components that fails to pass the tests has to be reviewed
and redesigned until it passes the tests. It is also important to identify qualified and specialized
individuals or companies to carry out individual tests. The results obtained should also be
analyzed by different qualified professionals. Some of the validations that must be obtained for
the design and safety of aircraft include: human safety factors, aircraft software, components
manufacturer approval, technical standards orders, etc.

Aircraft Manufacture Project 9
Optimization is another crucial process where the design team identifies the best solution
for every problem related to the aircraft manufacture project. It is believed that every solution
has numerous alternatives and therefore the best should always be selected. In this process, the
design team applies relevant mathematical equations and formulae, simulations and calculations
to evaluate the effects of changing different parameters of the design and use the outputs to come
up with the best matrices or combinations. Some of the strategies that the design team can apply
to optimize the designs include: use of alternative for manufacturing and operation processes of
the aircraft, use of locally available materials to minimize transportation emissions during
manufacturing process, use of lean manufacturing principles to reduce wastage, automation, etc.
At the end of optimization process, the aircraft should be allowed to go into full production and
use.
5. Human factors
Human factors are another very important aspect of aircraft design because they cause a
significant percentage of aircraft accidents (Lei, et al., 2014). These factors are the ones that
should influence the layout and design of the cockpit. Therefore the design team should always
have the pilot and other users of the aircraft in mind when designing the cockpit and the entire
aircraft. This means that the design team should not only focus on the avionics systems but also
on how the pilot will interact with these systems. The ultimate goal is to simplify pilots’ tasks
and minimize their workload. The most important human factors that are considered in the
design of aircrafts include: anthropometric factors (body dimensions, foot size, hand size, thigh
length, muscle strength, standing height, sitting height, sitting eye height, length of legs and
arms, body thickness and width, sitting elbow rest length/height, etc.), pilot comfort, workspace
constraints (space and positioning of controls and other devices), human sensory factors (smell,

Aircraft Manufacture Project 10
vision and noise), and physiological factors (vibration, extreme temperature, toxic substances,
humidity, radiation, etc.), safety harness, display (design, colour and light), control design and
layout, standardization, control loading, direction, colours and shapes, warning system,
checklists and automation (Paulson, 2012). Besides the pilots, the design team should also look
at the perspectives of passengers, other crew members and maintenance technicians of the
aircraft by considering factors such as safety, comfort, reliability, affordability and ease of work.
With modern technology, it is possible to incorporate all appropriate human factors cost
effectively.
6. Conclusion
Aircrafts are used for various purposes and their importance in modern society cannot be
overemphasized. However, the environmental impacts of aircrafts, which also translates into
economic and social impacts, have come under great scrutiny because of the climate change
concerns. For this reason, designers have a major role to play so as to minimize environmental
impacts of aircrafts. Design process is very important in an aircraft manufacture project because
the way an aircraft is designed influences how it is manufactured and operated. The design team
has to follow appropriate procedures and consider the right parameters during preliminary design
stage, detailed design and development stages, and system test, evaluation & validation and
optimization stages. Doing so helps in ensuring that the aircraft designed meets the functional,
technical, interoperability, usability, sustainability, reliability, safety, maintainability,
affordability, producibility, supportability, serviceability and disposability, requirements of the
project. Completion of these processes requires effective communication, coordination and
cooperation of all stakeholders involved in the project. The persons involved in the design
process should also have relevant qualifications in terms of knowledge and skills. It is also very

Aircraft Manufacture Project 11
important for the design team to incorporate necessary human factors when designing the
aircraft.
References
ATAG, 2017. Facts & figures. [Online]
Available at: http://www.atag.org/facts-and-figures.html
[Accessed 2 October 2017].
Banu, S., 2012. Aviation and climate change: global sectored approach is the need of the hour.
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies, 7(2), pp. 137-142.
Beck, A., Hodzic, A., Soutis, C. & Wilson, C., 2011. Influence of implementation of composite
materials in civil aircraft industry on reduction of environmental pollution and greenhouse effect.
IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, Volume 26, pp. 1-9.
Blanchard, B. & Fabrycky, W., 2010. Systems engineering and analysis. 5th ed. New Jersey:
Prentice Hall.
Capoccitti, S., Khare, A. & Mildenberger, U., 2010. Aviation industry - mitigating climate
change impacts through technology and policy. Journal of Technology Management &
Innovation, 5(2).
Domun, Y., 2016. Aircraft design process overview. [Online]
Available at: https://www.engineeringclicks.com/aircraft-design-process/
[Accessed 2 October 2017].

Aircraft Manufacture Project 12
Estrada, F., Tol, R. & Botzen, W., 2017. Global economic impacts of climate variability and
change during the 20th century. PLOS ONE, 12(2).
Gonzalez, C., 2017. NASA's Green Thumb for Green Aviation. [Online]
Available at: http://www.machinedesign.com/defense/nasa-s-green-thumb-green-aviation
[Accessed 2 October 2017].
Lee, J. & Mo, J., 2011. Analysis of technological innovation and environmental performance
improvement in aviation sector. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public
Health, 8(9), pp. 3777-3795.
Lei, G., Shuguang, Z., Peng, T. & Yi, L., 2014. An integrated graphic-taxonomic-associative
approach to analyze human factors in aviation accidents. Chinese Journal of Aeronautics, 27(2),
pp. 226-240.
Luber, G. & Prudent, N., 2009. Climate change and human health. Transactions of the American
Clinical and Climatological Association, Volume 120, pp. 113-117.
MacDonald, S., 2015. Landing at Langley, Beoing's ecoDemonstrator 757 Displays Advances in
Green Aviation. [Online]
Available at: https://www.nasa.gov/langley/landing-at-langley-boeing-s-ecodemonstrator-757-
displays-advances-in-green-aviation
[Accessed 2 October 2017].
Mishra, A., Singh, V. & Jain, S., 2010. Impact of global warming and climate chnage on society.
Journal of Comparative Social Welfare, 26(2-3), pp. 239-260.

Aircraft Manufacture Project 13
Monroe Aerospace, 2017. The three stages of aircraft design. [Online]
Available at: http://monroeaerospace.com/blog/the-three-stages-of-aircraft-design/
[Accessed 2 October 2017].
Paulson, Y., 2012. Cockpit design and human factors. [Online]
Available at: http://aviationknowledge.wikidot.com/aviation:cockpit-design-and-human-factors
[Accessed 2 October 2017].
Rai, P. & Rai, P., 2013. Environmental and socio-economic impacts of global climate change:
An overview on mitigation approaches. Environmental Skeptics and Critics, 2(4), pp. 126-148.
Schwinn, D., Kohlgruber, D., Scherer, J. & Siemann, M., 2016. A parametric aircraft fuselage
model for preliminary sizing and crashworthiness applications. CEAS Aeronautical Journal,
7(3), pp. 357-372.
Sikorska, P., 2015. The need for legal regulation of global emissions from the aviation industry
in the context of emerging aerospace vehicles. International Comparative Jurisprudence, 1(2),
pp. 133-142.
Taber, S., 2010. Climate change impacts of the aviation industry. [Online]
Available at: http://ehsjournal.org/http:/ehsjournal.org/steven-taber/climate-change-impacts-of-
the-aviation-industry-global-warming/2010/
[Accessed 2 October 2017].
Wang, F., Ge, Q., Wang, S. & Chen, B., 2014. Certainty and uncertainty in understanding global
warming. Chinese Journal of Population Resources and Environment, 12(1), pp. 6-12.

Aircraft Manufacture Project 14
Zheng, J., Qiao, H. & Wang, S., 2017. The effect of carbon tax in aviation industry on the
multilateral simulation game. Sustainability, 9(7), p. 1247.