Alzheimer and Parkinson Disease, Neurotransmitters, Symptoms and Drugs

This article discusses Alzheimer and Parkinson Disease, their Neurotransmitters, Symptoms and Drugs used to treat them. It also covers Psychostimulants and food rich in tyrosine and L-tryptophan.

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Alzheimer disease
Alzheimer disease (AD) refers to a chronic neurodegenerative disease that always
commences slowly and worsens over period. It is the major cause of approximate to seventy
percent instances of dementia (Liang & Wei, 2015). Moreover, Alzheimer disease is known to
be a disorder that leads loss of memory together with decline in cognitive as a result of improper
functioning of brain cells.
Neurotransmitter implicated of Alzheimer disease
The disease of Alzheimer is characterized by markedly decreased concentration of
acetylcholine in neocortex and hippocampus. These concentrations are caused by degeneration of
cholinergic neurons. Acetylcholine is vital in reducing instances of memory loss among
individuals in the society (Grill & Galvin, 2014). However, acetylcholine is just a
neurotransmitter useful for processing learning together with memory that is reduced in
concentration along with function among patients with AD.
Symptoms
The known common early symptom of this disease is difficulty in remembering of past
recent events. As this disease advances the other symptoms include language problems, mood
swings, disorientation, motivation loss, behavioral concerns, and not managing self-care (Grill &
Galvin, 2014). The disease has symptom of impairments to reasoning, exercising judgment, and
complex tasking such as inability to finance management and poor ability to make decisions.
Drugs

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The use of non-steroidal drugs that are anti-inflammatory for extended period has been
thought in early days of 2017 to be linked with the decrease chances of developing AD. Other
drugs used to treat the cognitive dangers of AD include acetylcholinesterase inhibitors. These
inhibit consist of tacrine, galantamine, rivastigmine, together with donepezil (Gerald, 2016). The
other drug is memantine that is a receptor antagonist of NMDA. However, among all these
drugs, there is no single drug that has been clearly illustrated to halt or delay progression of this
disease.
Parkinson disease
Parkinson disease (PD) refers to the progressive disorder that impacts nerve cells within
the brain that are responsible for movement of body. In event when dopamine-generates, neurons
die, leading to symptoms that comprise of tremor, stiffness, slowness, together with problems of
balance of body (Chen-Plotkin, 2017). The treatment of this disorder always concentrates on idea
of reducing symptoms to enable the more active style of life that comprise of medication,
exercise, diet, along with surgery of deep brain stimulation.
Neurotransmitter implicated of Parkinson disease
In Parkinson Disease, neurotransmitter dopamine (DA) as well as dopaminergic, perform
essential role. Decline in DA in the substantial nigra in section of brain has been implicated to be
the cause of this disease. Deficiency of dopamine in the nigrostriatal system is a characterization
of Parkinson disease. Parkinson disease is a neurodegenerative disease with symptoms of motor
and non-motor (Parekh, 2012). The neurotransmitters of PD imbalance do happen in the
extrapyramidal system with the dopamine and acetylcholine with glutamate surplus.
Symptoms

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Some of symptom of PD differs from one individual to another as per rate of progression
of this disease. An individual that has PD might experience some of the below common
‘Hallmark” symptoms. These include bradykinesia, tremor at rest, rigidity, and postural inability.
Bradykinesia result due to slowness of locomotion, impaired dexterity, drooling, declined to
blink, and expressionless face (Parekh, 2012). Tremor at rest results due to involuntary shaking
that occurs because of declines with purposeful motion. It typically commences on a single side
of body usually the hand. Rigidity on the other side is visible due to stiffness caused by
involuntary progress in tone of muscle. The postural instability results because of sense of
imbalance (Parekh, 2012). Other symptoms include freezing or being stuck in one place,
problems of sleep, depression, constipation, and cognitive impairment among other symptoms.
Drugs
Several drugs can be used to manage PD. The drugs might be utilized alone or in
combination with each other depending on if an individual’s symptoms are advanced or mild.
These drugs include selegiline and rasagiline that are neuroprotective as it can slow progression
of disease (Parekh, 2012). Other drugs are amantadine, pramipexole, ropinirole, and
apomorphine that can lock the action of the neurotransmitter glutamate that gives room for the
increase in release of dopamine.
Psychostimulants: mechanisms of action
Psychostimulants also referred as stimulants in biological sector. It is the overarching
term that tends to cover several drugs that comprise of those that increase operation of system of
central nervous of body. These drugs are always pleasurable as well as invigorating or
medications that posses sympathomimetic effects (Kumar & Chatterjee, 2016). Psychostimulants

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drugs include cocaine, methamphetamine, and amphetamine that posses medical uses but also
considerable potential for abuse. Therefore, direct along with indirect symphathomimetic that
consists of cocaine with amphetamine and nonsympathomimetics are two main categories of
Psychostimulants. Stimulants are commonly utilized throughout the globe as prescription drugs
together with without the prescription as recreational or performance-enhancing drugs.
Psychostimulants in most cases increase the release of dopamine and norepinephrine that
are essential in reducing different diseases. Besides, these drugs are utilized to treat attention
disorders. Stimulants hypothetically advance the availability of norepinephrine and dopamine in
prefrontal cortex that improves the efficiency of data processing at pyramidal neurons. Such
actions result to the improvement of symptoms in deficit of attention or hyperactivity disorder
(Anaclet, Griffith, & Fuller, 2017). Moreover, Psychostimulants have been utilized in medical
field for several conditions. Some of the conditions comprise of disorders of sleep, obesity,
asthma, anesthetics, mood disorders, impulse disorders control, and nasal congestion.
Food rich with tyrosine and L-tryptophan
Tyrosine remains to be the vital amino acid that involves in developing molecules of
brain signal such as dopamine together with hormones of stress such as norepinephrine and
epinephrine. The vital amino acid of tyrosine can be produce by the body when an individual
consumes enough of the phenylalanine of amino acid (Parker & Brotchie, 2011). Therefore, food
rich with tyrosine includes cheese, pork seeds, nuts, soy beans, beef, whole grains, lamb, dairy,
fish, seeds, and beans. The recommended amount of tyrosine to be taken is twenty-five
milligram per kilogram of weight of body.

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Food rich with tryptophan remains to be the type of α-amino acid that is utilized in the
proteins biosynthesis. Tryptophan consists of the α-amino acid group, the α-carboxylic group of
acid, and the side chain insole that leads it to be non-polar aromatic amino acid. It is useful in
human wellbeing, meaning the body cannot use it, but it must be attained from the diet (Gerald,
2016). Besides, tryptophan is also the precursor to the neurotransmitters serotonin together with
hormone melatonin. Food rich in L-tryptophan consists of seed, cheese, oats, nuts, eggs, red
meat, turkey, chicken, and fish (Parker & Brotchie, 2011). The recommended intake of L-
tryptophan per day is four milligrams per kilogram weight of body. Moreover, tryptophan is a
vital amino acid required for general development and growth, creation of serotonin, and
producing niacin in the body.

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References
Anaclet, C., Griffith, K., & Fuller, P. (2017). Activation of the GABAergic Parafacial Zone
Maintains Sleep and Counteracts the Wake-Promoting Action of the Psychostimulants
Armodafinil and Caffeine. Neuropsychopharmacology, 43(2), 415-425. doi:
10.1038/npp.2017.152
Chen-Plotkin, A. (2017). Parkinson disease: Blood transcriptomics for Parkinson disease?.
Nature Reviews Neurology, 14(1), 5-6. doi: 10.1038/nrneurol.2017.166
Gerald, C. (2016). Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy 10th Edition, Kindle
Edition. 8(1), 7-88. Retrieved from:
https://www.cengagebrain.co.uk/shop/isbn/9781305263727
Grill, J., & Galvin, J. (2014). Facilitating Alzheimer Disease Research Recruitment. Alzheimer
Disease & Associated Disorders, 28(1), 1-8. doi: 10.1097/wad.0000000000000016
Kumar Basak, A., & Chatterjee, T. (2016). An Insight into the Cellular Mechanisms of Addiction
to Psychostimulants. Journal Of Depression And Anxiety, 5(3). doi: 10.4172/2167-
1044.1000238
Liang, L., & Wei, H. (2015). Dantrolene, A Treatment for Alzheimer Disease?. Alzheimer
Disease & Associated Disorders, 29(1), 1-5. doi: 10.1097/wad.0000000000000076
Parekh, V. (2012). Tai chi improves balance in Parkinson disease. Nature Reviews Neurology,
8(4), 179-179. doi: 10.1038/nrneurol.2012.38

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Parker, G., & Brotchie, H. (2011). Mood effects of the amino acids tryptophan and tyrosine. Acta
Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 124(6), 417-426. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2011.01706.x