Diagnosis and Staging of Cancer

This essay is a comprehensive inscription of how cancer is diagnosed and staged, the complications that arise out of cancer ailment and its subsequent treatment, and the various methods of easing psychological and physical effects associated with cancer and its treatment.

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Cancer
Name
Institutional Affiliation

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Diagnosis and Staging of Cancer
Cancer is a lethal disease and has been ranked as the leading death-causing disease. If the
disease is diagnosed on time, treatment commences immediately and the chances of recovery are
usually high. Staging on the other side plays significant role in determining the chances of
survival for a patient diagnosed with cancer. It is also significant in determining the treatment
plans that best suits an individual. Clinical trials that are also determined depending on the stage
of cancer. This essay is therefore a comprehensive inscription of how cancer is diagnosed and
staged, the complications that arise out of cancer ailment and its subsequent treatment, and the
various methods of easing psychological and physical effects associated with cancer and its
treatment.
In many instances, cancer is diagnosed by a professional after a comprehensive analysis
of tissues or cell samples using a microscope (American-Cancer-Society, 2015). Tests can also
be conducted on cell’s DNA, proteins, and RNA and ascertain the presence or absence of cancer.
The procedure of taking out a piece of suspected lump or sample from the human body to
conduct cancer tests is called biopsy. The samples that are collected are known as Biopsy
Specimens. The entire testing process is known as Pathology. The process of determining the
extent of cancer infection and its actual location of infection is called staging (American-Cancer-
Society, 2015). Information obtained is crucial in determining the treatment to be accorded to a
person and to predict a person’s outlook. However, staging is not possible for all types of cancer.
Leukemia for example, is usually spread in the entire body. Cancers that form tumors are
however staged easily. During the staging process, doctors begin by checking at the main tumor
to determine its location, size, and if its growth has affected the nearby areas. Nearby lymph
nodes are also checked to see if cancer has spread to them. Other body parts are also checked to

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find out whether cancer has spread to them. If it has spread to parts further from the primary
tumor, it is called Metastasis.
There are two major types of staging. Clinical staging estimates the extent of cancer
infection by basing on results from imaging tests e.g. CT scans and X-Rays, tumor biopsies, and
physical examinations and/or blood tests. Pathologic staging, on the other hand, involves
surgeries. Results from tests and exams mentioned for clinical staging are boosted by results
obtained from surgical operations. There are also different types of staging systems. The most
commonly used to stage a majority of cancer types is called the TNM system (American-Cancer-
Society, 2015).
In the TNM system, T indicates the primary tumor, N indicates Nodes and articulates
whether the disease has spread to lymph nodes near the primary tumor, M stands for Metastasis.
It communicates whether cancer has spread to body parts further from the primary tumor.
Information relating to the primary tumor is given in the T category as follows;
 TX indicates that the tumor is unmeasurable.
 T0 signifies lack of evidence of a primary tumor.
 Tis tells that the growth of cancer cells is only on the most superficial tissue layer without
with no signs of them into the deeper tissues.
 Digits after T, for example, T1, T2, and T3 are used in describing the size of the tumor
and/or its degree of growth into other tissues. Higher T values signify higher growth.
The degree of how much cancer has spread to nearby lymph nodes is described by the N
category as follows;
 NX indicates that evaluation of nearby lymph nodes is not possible.

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 N0 indicates the absence of cancer in the nearby lymph nodes.
 Digits after N (N1, N2, N3…) are used in describing the location, size, and/or lymph
nodes quantity nearby that are cancerous.
M category indicates whether distant body parts have been infected with cancer as follows;
 M0 indicates that not distant body part was found infected
 M1 indicates spread of cancer to distant body parts.
Once the TNM values have been established, their combination is used in assigning the final
stages. Stage levels are indicated in Roman figures commencing at I to IV whereby, the IV stage
being the highest.
Complications of Cancer and its Treatment
Cancer and its subsequent treatment have numerous negative side effects to the patient.
More so, the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous systems are the most susceptible
to the disease and its treatment (Giglio & Gilbert, 2013). Subsequently, significant neurologic
mortality and morbidity could occur. To begin with, brain metastases (BMs) that occur due to
systemic malignancies are the commonest direct forms of involvement of the nervous system
with cancer. Lung, melanoma, and breast cancers are the most common causals of BMs.
Common clinical presentations include; headaches, focal neurologic deficits, and seizures.
Vasogenic edema and seizures can be treated by symptomatic therapy. Newer generation non-
enzyme inducing anticonvulsants are also better treatment options. They are preferred to older
generation anticonvulsants because they pose minimal risks of drug-drug interactions.
Leptomeningeal metastases are other cancer-caused complications. Analysis of data from
the largest autopsy series points out that leptomeningeal seeding prevails in more than 8% of

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cancer patients during autopsy (Newton & Malkin, 2016). Breast cancer, melanoma, and lung
cancer are the most common cancers where the prevalence of these complications is sighted.
Acute non-lymphocytic leukemia and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma are directly related with cases
of lymphoid and hematologic malignancies. Most common symptoms of these complications are
limb weakness, pain related to the affected nerve roots and bladder disturbances. These
complications can only be subjected to palliative treatment, which the family should be made
aware of before commencing. Chemotherapy, radiation, and surgery are examples of this
treatment. Ventriculoperitoneal shunting could also be effective for hydrocephalus.
During treatment, radiation therapy results in complications of both the peripheral and
central nervous system. A combination of both vascular damage and damage to glia (mainly to
oligodendrocytes) is known to bring the aforementioned complications to the brain and the spinal
code. Immediately after or during radiation sessions, an acute injury might be developed by
patients. In most occasions, this is usually manifested through vomiting, headaches, and nausea.
Complications that may occur between one and six months after completing radiation therapy are
known as Early-Delayed Injuries (Newton & Malkin, 2016). Patients with such injuries are likely
to have fatigue, drowsiness, and cognitive problems. Additionally, development of brain MRI
changes which suggest progression of the tumor may prevail during this period. These changes
are however reversible and could be accelerated by steroids. Conversely, late radiation therapy
injury is known to cause leukoencephalopathy, cognitive impairments as well as focal areas of
necrosis. Though there are no user-friendly therapies that could limit the aforementioned,
psychostimulants have been advocated.
Methods of Easing Physical and Psychological Effects

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When people are diagnosed with cancer, the first effect is psychological distress.
Subsequently, a wide range of emotions may manifest themselves in an individual. The most
common ones are; disbelief, fear, grief, depression, anger, helplessness and feelings of isolation
amongst others (Filigenzi, 2015). To curb all these, individuals are advised to find new looks for
themselves by focusing on what they can change and not what cannot be changed. They should
also avoid generalizing consequences as individual cancer patients go through different ordeals.
They should also open up their feelings and share with friends, family, other cancer survivors,
and spiritual leaders. Choosing to adopt a healthy lifestyle is another intervention for
psychological distress. Cancer patients should pay attention to their needs for nutrition, rest,
private time and exercise.
There are also numerous physical effects that result from cancer. Management of these
effects is crucial to improving the quality of life of the patient. Fatigue, which is common
amongst cancer patients may vary amongst individuals. Doctors and nurses may be involved in
treating fatigue by treating other conditions such as anemia. A patient is also advised to set aside
enough time to take short naps or rest breaks during the day. Pain is another physical effect that
could be intervened through the prescription of a variety of medicine (Mayo-Clinic-Staff, 2018).
Cancer also results in hair loss amongst some individuals depending on the therapy being
administered. A cooling cap could be used when chemotherapy is being administered to reduce
the risk of hair loss. Wigs can also be used to conceal already lost head hair.

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References
American-Cancer-Society. (2015, March 25). Cancer Staging. AMERICAN CANCER SOCIETY.
Retrieved August 16, 2018, from https://www.cancer.org/treatment/understanding-your-
diagnosis/staging.html
Filigenzi, C. (2015). My Cancer Days (illustrated ed.). American Cancer Society.
Giglio, P., & Gilbert, M. R. (2013, April 28). Neurologic Complications of Cancer and its
Treatment. NCBI. Retrieved August 16, 2018, from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3637950/
Mayo-Clinic-Staff. (2018, March 09). Cancer. MAYO CLINIC. Retrieved August 16, 2018, from
https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20370588
Newton, H. B., & Malkin, M. G. (2016). Neurological Complications of Systemic Cancer and
Antineoplastic Therapy (illustrated ed.). CRC Press.