Childhood and Adolescence | Report

Running head: CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE
CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE
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Introduction
Childhood and adolescence are both diverse stages in an individual’s life, each with its
own set of varied social, psychological and emotional development. However, the experiences of
one stage closely contribute to the transition of the other (Defoe et al., 2015). The following
paper will hence extensively discuss on the key role of peer relationships, family and morals
during childhood and adolescence, using developmental theories.
Discussion
Family Dynamics and Development
While a child demonstrates several greater levels of independence in comparison to
infants, he or she is still dependent on his or her parents, which is why, family dynamics heavily
influence childhood development. According to Erik Erikson’s psychosocial development
theory, infants belong to the stage of trust vs. mistrust where he or she is heavily dependent on
parents for fulfilment of biological, social, emotional and financial needs. Fulfilment of needs
contributes to children feeling safe, secure and self-independent in their future exploits (Lee &
McLanahan, 2015). It is for this reason why functional family environments contribute to
positive child development since such families, in addition to caring for the child’s sleep, hunger
and food needs, also provide love and support to their children and respect their child’s
independent views. A dysfunctional family filled with arguing parents or parents who mistreat or
abuse the child is likely to harm a child’s psychosocial development and is likely to result in
developmental delays and behavioral abnormalities (Sampson, 2017).
According to Bowlby’s theory of maternal attachment, the prevalence of nurturing,
affectionate and loving relationships with parents, especially the mother, can contribute to an

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infant’s feeling of security and safety. When such relationships are absent, as in the case of
nuclear family structures like divorce parents or single parent families, it is likely that the child
will be deprived of these feelings of security which may develop into feelings of fear, anxiety,
insecurity and low self-esteem in adolescents and emerging adulthood (Gross et al., 2017).
Impact of Peer Relationships
According to Erik Erikson’s psychosocial development, children between the ages of 5 to
11 years of age belong to the identity vs. inferiority stage. This stage is characterized by children
beginning to a sense of independence and thus pride in their new found ability to independently
achieve and accomplish tasks and activities (Knight, 2017). When teachers arrange for activities
requiring group work or play, children gain the opportunity to exercise of leadership and
cooperation skills and thus, their skills of independence. When the same is encouraged or
appreciated by or in front of their peers, such children encounter enhancement in their sense of
self-esteem, confidence and self-reliance abilities (Villar & Pratt, 2015).
However, it is likely that each child belonging to the same age group may wish to
exercise their independence and leadership skills thus paving the way for conflicts. When not
controlled harmoniously by teachers, children may thus be ridiculed or discouraged by their
peers resulting in feelings of poor self-esteem, self-confidence and negative self-perceptions
which may further progress towards adolescence. Thus, while positive peer relationships
contribute extensively to a child’s development of confidence, worth and self-esteem, negative
peer relationships can hinder a child’s ability to be independent and self-reliant and thus pave the
way for development of negative perceptions regarding oneself (Wentzel, 2017).
According to Erikson, adolescence highlights the stage of identity vs. confusion where
adolescents seek a sense of identity and approval which will pave the way for the development of

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a strong sense of confidence, control and independence. When received with healthy and secure
peer relationships, adolescents progress smoothly into fidelity, that is ability to transition and
accept societal standards and regulations which further contribute to the development of strong
sense of identity (MacPherson, Kerr & Stirling, 2016). It is for this reason, peer relationships
differ in adolescence and teenagers tend to give extensive importance to their peer groups since it
grants them a strong sense of identity. However, when encountered with ridicule, isolation or
discrimination from peers, and adolescent encounters feelings of isolation and loss of control and
trust in others and oneself and thus a loss of identity regarding oneself. Thus, peer relationships
play a special role during adolescence since a lack of it can negatively impact adolescence
identity and independence (Brenick & Romano, 2016).
Additional Pressure
An ego identity is the sense of self an adolescent develops via interactions with his or her
peers and family and grants adolescents a sense of identity and independence. Thus, lack of
adequate development of an ego identity, due to conflicts with friends and family, can result in
feelings of poor self-esteem and low levels of self-confidence which further translate into
additional pressures where an adolescent feels anxious and stressed to engage in social
interactions, thus paving the way for social isolation (Ragelienė, 2016). Further, since
adolescents encounter an intrinsic need to feel accepted and thus, develop their own sense of
identity, they are often victims of peer pressure - which if associated with harmful behaviors,
may pave the way for adverse mental health and behavioral consequences during adulthood.
Adolescents are hence prone to fall prey to harmful behaviors like substance abuse, drug
addictions and delinquency which may further aggravate during adulthood (Harrell-Levy,
Kerpelman & Henry, 2016). Additionally, the above effects may further aggravate if an

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adolescent is encountered with additional pressures in the form of lack of unfulfilling family
relationships (Verhoeven, Poorthuis & Volman, 2019).
Due to development of an ego identity, adolescents, in comparison to children, gain the
ability to engage in abstract and logical thinking which is why, they develop their own set of
world views, opinions and understanding regarding the environment. Thus, adolescents
frequently experience conflicts and arguments with families and peers and may often perceive
that they are misunderstood. Such issues may hence contribute to the tumultuous nature of this
stage and contribute to feelings of anxiety, depression, stress and loss of optimism in adolescents
(Fuligni & Tsai, 2015).
Moral Values
Children gain a new sense of freedom and confidence to be self-sufficient, which is why,
a child may be egoistic and find it difficult to understand the views of their parents. Further, a
child during this stage may improve his or her skills in logical thinking but will still demonstrate
crude abstract concepts. For this reasons, a child’s moral values is essentially self-centered
during this stage and he or she is unable to engage in critical, empathetic thinking (Ettekal &
Ladd, 2019).
Due to the development of an ego identity, adolescents’ ability to think in abstract and
logical terms improves extensively which is why, teenagers are likely to question and critically
analyze societal values and engage in the development of their own moral identity. While
adolescents may not attempt to exert their independent moral values on others, he or she may
encounter feelings of anxiety or depression when such individualized values are not empathized
by peers and families (Kanacri, Zava & Huerta, 2019).

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Conclusion
This paper thus elaborately and extensively discusses on the key changes which occur in
childhood and adolescence and the contributions of family and peers with regards to the same.
The development of each stage largely contributes to the behaviors and emotions adapted in the
other. To conclude, early childhood professionals and parents must learn to respect the views,
opinions and preferences of children and adolescents, irrespective of their ages.

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References
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