Effects of High-Rise Construction on Environment: Materials and Technology

This research explores the impact of high-rise construction on the environment, focusing on the use of appropriate materials and construction technology in the UK. It identifies positive and negative impacts, evaluates key factors, and recommends the use of appropriate materials and construction technology for effective construction of high-rise buildings.

The Effects of High-Rise Construction on the
Environment: Focusing on the Use of
Appropriate Materials and Construction
Technology

Acknowledgement
I would like to thank my supervisor and module tutor, who guided me throughout this process
of conducting the research. I am also always thankful to my friends and family, who have
always been my support system.

Abstract
The aim of the research is to demonstrate and describe the effect of high-rise buildings on the
natural environment while considering the use of appropriate materials and construction
technology in United Kingdom (UK).In order to achieve the respective research objectives,
key emphasis is laid upon the collection and analysis of secondary data. Hence, the research
strategy of systematic literature review is being adopted.
Based on the articles systematically reviewed in this research, 6 relevant themes were
identified. According to theme 1, high rise construction has a huge impact on the micro-
climatic and environmental conditions of the surrounding areas. Theme 2 states that high rise
construction supports the accommodation of larger population in vertical cities which is a
major benefit. Theme 3 states that Business Intelligence Modelling (BIM) implementation is
a major factor that impacts the successful construction of high rise buildings. Theme 4
identifies that social requirements of residents tend to impact the overall planning,
construction and operability of residential high rise buildings. According to theme 5, modular
construction is an important trend for the effective and sustainable construction of high rise
buildings. Finally, theme 6 emphasises upon the comparison between timber and concrete as
appropriate material for high rise construction.
High rise building is typically described as a building having tall facades, small roof area, and
small footprint. One major point of differentiation between conventional medium rise and
low rise buildings is that there is a need for special engineering systems because of its height.
High rise is basically any structure in which height significantly affects evacuation. Due to
intense urbanisation and population growth, high rise buildings are becoming extremely
prevalent across city areas where constructing vast regions of houses and lawns is not
possible. Hence, high rise buildings are practically treated as relevant solutions for residing
larger population in a smaller area. The key findings of this research can be reviewed by
practitioners in the construction industry for considerably enhancing the ecological conditions
of urban regions through high rise construction using relevant materials and technologies.

Table of Contents
Acknowledgement......................................................................................................................2
Abstract......................................................................................................................................3
List of Figures............................................................................................................................5
List of Tables..............................................................................................................................6
Chapter 1: Introduction..............................................................................................................7
1.1 Research Overview..........................................................................................................7
1.2 Research Rationale...........................................................................................................8
1.3 Research Aim, Objectives and Questions........................................................................9
1.4 Research Significance......................................................................................................9
1.5 Research Approach and Structure..................................................................................10
Chapter 2: Literature Review...................................................................................................12
2.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................12
2.2 Current Trends of High-Rise Construction....................................................................12
2.3 Environmental Impacts of High-Rise Buildings and Construction Activities...............15
2.3.1 Negative Impacts.....................................................................................................15
2.3.2 Positive Impacts......................................................................................................18
2.4 Factors Affecting High-Rise Construction.....................................................................18
2.5 Appropriate Materials and Construction Technology for High-Rise Buildings.............22
Conclusion............................................................................................................................38
Chapter 3: Research Methodology...........................................................................................38
Chapter 4: Data Analysis..........................................................................................................46
4.1 Overview........................................................................................................................46
4.2 Systematic Literature Review (SLR) and Key Themes.................................................46
4.3 Summary........................................................................................................................55
Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusion....................................................................................56
Introduction..........................................................................................................................56
RO1: To identify the positive and negative impacts of high-rise buildings and construction
activities on the natural environment...................................................................................56
RO2: To critically evaluate key factors those impact the quality and sustainable design of
high-rise buildings................................................................................................................58
RO3: To recommend the use of appropriate materials and construction technology for
effective construction of high-rise buildings........................................................................60
Conclusion................................................................................................................................63
6.1 Final Conclusion............................................................................................................63
6.2 Practical Recommendations...........................................................................................64

6.3 Limitations and Future Recommendations....................................................................65
References................................................................................................................................66
List of Figures
Figure 1:Tallest Building in the World.....................................................................................12
Figure 2: Formation of urban heat island.................................................................................14
Figure 3: Temperature inversion..............................................................................................15
Figure 4: Lakhta Centre in St. Petersburg................................................................................18
Figure 5: Comparing Material System Applicable in High-Rise Construction (2015 to 2019)
..................................................................................................................................................21
Figure 6: Categories of Concrete Structure for High Rise Buildings......................................22
Figure 7: Frame Structure of Steel and Concrete in a High Rise Building..............................23
Figure 8: Key Concerns and Considerations of Timber Use in Buildings...............................27
Figure 9: 3D Printed House in Beijing, China.........................................................................28
Figure 10: Eco-friendly Construction of Bioplasic Building...................................................29
Figure 11: Atrium in the Hotel of Marina Bay Sands..............................................................29
Figure 12: CO2 Emissions throughout the Life Cycle of High Rise Buildings.......................35
Figure 13: Research Onion Framework...................................................................................36
Figure 14: PRISMA model for selection of articles.................................................................40

List of Tables
Table 1: Indicative Attributes of Different Glass Categories...................................................25
Table 2: Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria for SLR..................................................................41

Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Research Overview
The enhanced growth of cities and the contributing urban density tends to drive a dramatic
increase in the construction of tall or high rise buildings. While the trend for high rise
construction is clear, there are still various concerns regarding the sustainability of high rise
buildings (Abramov, 2018). With the increased height of a building, there are increased
demands of engineering on the system. As a result, the operational and energy requirements
of the constructed high rise buildings are more than traditional construction of low rise
buildings. For the purpose of this research, it is necessary to consider high rise construction
with respect to urban density (Bester, 2013). According to a recent research conducted by
Council on Tall Building and Urban Habitat (CTBUH), buildings cannot be classified as a
standalone component as there are other factors like the energy influence and infrastructure
requirements of transportation (Wood and Du, 2017).
According to Wood and Du (2017), low rise development of suburban area require
approximately 5 to 10 times the level of energy and road infrastructure as high rise
construction. Thus, while construction of tall building is a standalone solution, there is
inherently high embodiment of energy. High rise construction can be included in the overall
solution for sustainability in the broader context (Wood and Du, 2017). This is the reason due
to which independent experts agree that it is easy for optimising sustainability across smaller
region than constructing an urban sprawl. There is often avoidance of transportation issues
and their relative economic and health impacts. As a result, urban sprawl is classified as a
worse option than high rise construction (Chua et al., 2018).
However, for industrial expertise, it is crucial for challenging the sustainability of standalone
high rise building while identifying it as a solution rather than an issue for climate and
resource crises. A significantly trending, power tool for new innovative ways to develop
sustainable solutions on high rise construction is the scope for integrating with the digital
environment. It is possible to design tall building as platforms to seek full benefit of futuristic
and latest smart technologies (Ahmad et al., 2017). Multiple smart sensors can transfer data
to the integrated systems of building management enabling the optimisation and adaptation of
improved security, safety, and energy efficiency. In addition, integration of smart technology

with architecture can assist in improving productivity and comfort for users of building and
creating new opportunities and experiences for collaboration.
Hence, it is clear that the overall demand of high rise construction is trending. This research
will focus on exploring these trends while evaluating the environmental impacts of high rise
buildings and construction. The research will also elaborate upon various materials and
technologies that should be utilised for enhancing the sustainability of high rise construction.
1.2 Research Rationale
The conceptual understanding of environmental enhancement is growing at a rapid pace in
the current era, specifically in terms of property development. Responsibility to support
future generations for receiving benefits and reducing negative development effects turn out
to be the key goal (Voskresenskaya and Vorona-Slivinskaya, 2018). This concept has to be
adopted for balancing interaction between the development and environment. Current
researchers like Voskresenskaya and Vorona-Slivinskaya (2018) and Ahmad et al. (2017)
have highlighted various issues regarding the performance of high rise residential
construction and practices of environmental enhancement. Issues that are being increased
due to high rise residential creation include: solid waste, water pollution, toxic
generation, land use that are decreasing places of living animals. Residential areas are
being developed and built by using natural resources. Using natural resources such as:
woods for making attractive furniture’s and others can have negative environmental
impacts. So, all these issues are affecting environment, people and animals to the great
extent.
Researchers like Razali and Adnan (2015) have also identified that the practice level for
environmental awareness increment across property businesses in developed nations is high
but due to lack of awareness they are not focusing on green practices. They all need to be
made aware about consequences of using natural and environmental things for residential
practices. Whereas, several developing nations like India are yet to progress in the area of
high rise construction, let alone environmental enhancement through high rise buildings for
urban area management such as the progress made in UK (Ahmad et al., 2017). There are
further issues regarding the maintenance of building performance through property business.
In support, it was revealed by Chua et al. (2018) that the maintenance of building could also
not enable the achievement of standard performance level.

Razali et al. (2017) identified that there is enhanced need for practices of environmental
enhancement with green practices otherwise, it may hurt environment. In addition, the higher
level of development density across urban planning is a huge issue because it is hurting
environment and if people do not build houses then people in developing countries become
bound to be in streets. This is due to the fact that development growth is very fast and it
impacts the evaluation of buildings performance and quality (Razali and Adnan, 2015).
Therefore, presenting the key findings of this research is highly justified in accordance with
the research aim and objectives identified in the next section.
1.3 Research Aim, Objectives and Questions
The aim of the research is to demonstrate and describe the effect of construction of residential
buildings on the natural environment while considering the use of appropriate materials and
construction technology in UK. The research is based on the following research objectives:
RO1: To identify the positive and negative impacts of high-rise buildings and construction
activities on the natural environment.
RO2: To critically evaluate key factors that are leading increasing needs of residential
buildings that have negative environmental impacts.
RO3: To recommend the use of appropriate materials and construction technology for
effective construction of high-rise buildings.
1.4 Research Significance
The overall scope of economic growth across leading nations contributes to the establishment
of big cities. When connecting external and internal migration of individuals across big cities,
there has been an increase in population density. Hence, the number of modern buildings with
multiple storeys and high rise construction has been increasing (Giyasov and Giyasova,
2018). The transport and engineering infrastructure is constructing at a consistent pace. A
metropolitan region is a living area combining a highly dense residential area, a recreational
environment, intense transportation environment, highly technical production area, and
natural environment. The overall growth of high rise construction and residential buildings
considerably impacts current environmental conditions across the terrain while maintaining

ecological balance across the living area as it increases solid waste, noise, air pollution,
hazardous emission and alteration in breeding patterns (Romanova, 2018).
High rise building is typically described as a building having tall facades, small roof area, and
small footprint. One major point of differentiation between conventional medium rise and
low rise buildings is that there is a need for special engineering systems because of its height.
High rise is basically any structure in which height significantly affects evacuation. Due to
intense urbanisation and population growth, high rise buildings are becoming extremely
prevalent across city areas where constructing vast regions of houses and lawns is not
possible. As needs of people are increasing as everyone wants to be in well-developed or
constructed houses but they are not realising as it is affecting natural environment. The key
findings of this research can be reviewed by practitioners in the construction industry for
considerably enhancing the ecological conditions of urban regions through high rise
construction using relevant materials and technologies.
1.5 Research Approach and Structure
In order to achieve the respective research objectives, key emphasis will be laid upon the
collection and analysis of secondary data. Hence, the research strategy of systematic literature
review will be adopted as on the basis of secondary or existing data, it becomes easier in
identifying impacts of residential buildings on natural environment. 10 to 15 research articles
will be selected on the basis of the following key words: High-rise buildings, high-rise
construction, construction technology, material, environmental impact, and sustainability.
Only those articles will be selected that have been published between 2010 and 2020, and
with full text availability. The reason of selecting data of these years is to get reliable and
accurate information and making research study with effectiveness. The publish years from
2010 to 2020 was decided to diversify the choice of research articles. There were some
articles that were relevant to the research but published between 2012 and 2015. The publish
year range of 2010 and 2020 also provided a significant scope to compare past trends with the
future trends of high rise construction. It can help researchers in making research study
accurate and reliable.

Introduction The first chapter (Introduction) of this
research describes and justifies the research
topic while identifying the research aim and
objectives.
Literature Review The second chapter (Literature Review) will
review existing articles demonstrating
current trends of high-rise construction
while recommending appropriate materials
and construction technology. The chapter
will discuss about the positive and negative
implications of high rise building and
construction activities. Case study examples
from the construction industry will be also
be discussed and reviewed.
Research Methodology The third chapter (Research Methodology)
will describe and justify every choice
related to the Research Onion framework
for collecting and analysing data in this
research.
Key findings The fourth chapter (Key Findings) will
provide a tabular presentation of the
secondary data collected from the
Systematic Literature Review strategy.

Discussion The fifth chapter (Discussion) will describe
the themes identified in chapter 4 from the
data analysis process.
Conclusion
The sixth chapter (Conclusion) will
conclude the final findings and provide
future research recommendations based on
the existing research limitations.
Chapter 2: Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
Since the past few decades, high rise buildings have been popularising significantly. Tall
building or high rise building are complex structured buildings with a number of factors that
impact the choices of design. Ineffectively considered design choices can result in
uneconomical and poor planning and hence, considering all aspects is necessary with a clear
understanding about the conceptual design aspects of high rise buildings. In this chapter,
multiple sources will be reviewed to identify the current trends of high rise construction,
while assessing the positive and negative impacts of such constructions. Further ahead, the
chapter will describe factors that are increasing needs of construction of high rise buildings
and possible materials to be used for sustainable construction of high rise buildings.
2.2 Current Trends of High-Rise Construction
In the current times, high-rise buildings are playing an increasing important role in
contemporary architecture. The development of high-rise buildings has become a necessity in
order to support the growth of population, and its concentration has increased across cities
due to the high demand for areas in city centres (Generalova and Generalov, 2020).

According to Haowen (2015), there have been dynamic establishments of construction with
respect to quality and quantity.
As per the Database of Council on tall buildings and urban habitat (CTBUH) for Global Tall
Building, there are 1647 buildings taller than 200 metres. These buildings are developed
globally as majority of number of buildings are in Hong Kong and Chicago. The overall
construction of high rise building is categorised by high demand of complex engineering
performances and construction technology (Haowen, 2015). In the field of contemporary
architecture, designers go ahead with the standardised framework of coded construction
assumptions for providing unusual and additional aesthetic experiences. With a strong
impression of scale and body, geometric shapes are utilised along with new material
technologies and hence, skyscrapers are categorised in terms of eco-buildings (Generalova
and Generalov, 2020).
United States has maintained and sustained its development state, strongly dominated by
New York which is known for the thinnest and the tallest high-rise buildings. However, there
are some outliers like Austin and Boston, which intensify the desire for dense urban lifestyle
across small market platforms. In addition, the overall demand for tall buildings is extremely
high with the completion of super-tall buildings (more than 300 meters) than ever before
(Generalova et al., 2017). However, the numbers of buildings constructed at 500 meters
height stay the same. Figure 1 identifies the tallest buildings in the world as per their height.

Figure 1: Tallest Building in the World
(Source: Emporis, ND)
Since the year 2020, CTBUH have been projecting various expected completion for building
more than 200 meters of height between the height range of 115 and 145 meters. Out of these,
approximately 17 to 30 super falls have a height more than 300 meters. In Shenyang, China,
the Sheng Jing Finance Plaza has 15 buildings within the complex and three out of these were
finally completed in the year 2018 (Generalova and Generalov, 2020). By the year 2020, it is
expected that at least 8 mega tall buildings of around 600 metres will exist worldwide.
But in reality by the year of 2020, there are only 3 mega tall buildings that are in
existences such as: Burj Khalifa, Dubai, Makkah Royal Clock tower and Shanghai
tower. On the basis of this, it can clearly be said that there is huge difference between
estimation of projects and actual projects that have been built (Interactive Study on The
Tallest 20 in 2020. 2020). Across the Middle Eastern market, the Financial District of King
Abdullah in Saudi Arabia (Riyadh) has to be completed substantially, adding five more
buildings more than 200 meters. In the North American market, New York consists of 10
buildings with height more than 200 meters completed in 2020 (Generalova and Generalov,
2020). Two out of these buildings are super-tall skyscrapers.
Changes in construction design since the past two decades are reflected in the need to
shape an energy- saving, sustainable environment. These are specified as per the comparable
methods to assess building with several criteria like Leadership in Energy and Environmental
Design (LEED) and quality assessment tools. The evidences of these changes are clear in
several documents such as Council of Europe by the White Book of the Architects, Urban
Planning, and European Charter for Solar Energy in Architecture, and the Aalborg Charter.
Architecture with energy efficiency is promoted through architects such as Gilles Perraud in,
Thomas Herzog, Renzo Piano, Norman Foster (Haowen, 2015). Health and safety act,
Employees’ compensation act and others need to be followed for building residential areas in
an effective manner. Along with LEED, there are number of other quality assessment tools
that are applicable globally and need to be used such as: energy Star, The Building research
establishment environment assessment method, Green globs and National green building
standards.

The key trend for high rise construction is the overall strive for achieving zero energy, which
is related to LEED certification. Obtaining LEED certification volume 4 means that highest
standard of green building is achieved across the globe. Bryant Park is the first high rise
building constructed across the globe for attaining the certificate. Among others, other
buildings achieving LEED v4 certification are Hearst Tower (New York), Taipei 101
(Taiwan), and Shanghai Tower (China) (Chowdhury and Islam, 2019).
2.3 Environmental Impacts of High-Rise Buildings and Construction Activities
2.3.1 Negative Impacts
The increasing number of high-rise buildings is having a significant impact on the current
environmental balance of the living environment and the climatic conditions of the terrain. A
key role is also played by the density of urban development, transport and infrastructure in
the transformation of the living environment. In this context, high-density residential areas as
well as industrial areas are unfavourable for the environment (Nemry et al., 2010). Therefore,
as integral aspects of modern cities, high-rise structures and buildings are aggravating the
environmental conditions of urban areas in a significant manner. According to Fantilli et al.
(2019), the development of living environment in big cities primarily comprises of high-rise
buildings, modern public spaces and multi-storey buildings. This not only causes variations in
wind conditions and temperature of the terrain, but also aggravates the environmental
situation in the region (Fantilli et al., 2019). In addition, it can be said that wind patterns
at ground level are influenced by trees and mountains. Trees and mountains have great
impacts on the surrounding area. As like this, high buildings also affect wind in urban
locations. It affects wind direction as when wind reaches to walls of high buildings then
it gets deflected in all directions and then it has downdraught negative impacts to the
great extent. Overall, it can be said that high buildings can have negative environmental
impacts (Wind Speed Patterns in a City with Buildings. 2020). The high-density residential
areas are integral parts of any metropolitan area, which facilitate comfortable living
conditions for the residents. However, these areas are also vulnerable to the constant impact
of pollution. There are number of factors that lead air pollution in residential areas such as
road transport, increasing number of industrial enterprises, and heating boiler houses. (Razali
et al., 2017). The increasing number of high-rise residential buildings, business and public

and centres across big and metropolitan cities has also led to an increase in use of
transportation sources and business activities.
According to Giyasov and Giyasova (2018), modern cities with high-rise structures can be
regarded asa fairly effective system to heat the surfaces of buildings, roofs, sidewalks and
roads with solar heat. Simultaneously, the high density of construction in particular a zreas
has resulted in hindering the process of natural aeration, resulting in the development of
urban heat islands that further impact the pollution levels (see figure 2).
Figure 2: Formation of urban heat island
(Source: Giyasov and Giyasova, 2018)
Moreover, there is also a negative impact on the environmental situation because of the
stagnation of air masses caused due to climatic and natural factors, like surface temperature
inversion and no-wind conditions (Giyasov and Giyasova, 2018). There can also be
occurrence of temperature inversion in certain regions with high density of high-rise building
throughout the year (as shown in Figure 3).

Figure 3: Temperature inversion
(Source: Giyasov and Giyasova, 2018)
In addition, the high density of high-rise structures is impacting the natural wind regime in
public residential areas of modern cities, and the lack of air exchange has led to the higher
concentration of pollutants in the air (Nemry et al., 2010). The pollutants can get into the
lungs of urban residents with the inhaled air, cause oxygen starvation, and further result in
asthma or other lung diseases (Baiz et al., 2016). Therefore, the rapid construction of high-
rise buildings has significantly impacted the aeration of urban cities and its surrounding areas.
In this context, there are also occurrences of convective currents that arise due to the
temperature difference between the surfaces of facades of buildings and public spaces (Baiz
et al., 2016). Moreover, the air circulation in cities with dense high-rise construction is also
influenced by the differences in the heating of open and shaded sections of public space and
streets.
According to Ahmad et al. (2017), there is also a sharp increase in the temperature of the
exterior surfaces of buildings because of irradiation with solar radiation, and this temperature
is significantly different from the external air temperature. This temperature difference results
in forming convective heat flow up the building, and developing the boundary (near-surface)
layer of heated air (Ahmad et al., 2017). The coefficient of solar radiation absorption by the
material of the outer surface of high-rise structures leads to the creation of a temperature
difference between the surrounding air and the external surface of the high-rise building.

Hence, it can be asserted that the construction of high-rise buildings is having a substantial
negative impact on the environment.
2.3.2 Positive Impacts
The positive impacts of high rise building can be demonstrated by the perception and
experience of occupants in living and working in high rise buildings. One significant benefit
of living in high floors is the significance of an unobstructed view. Several researchers like
Lee (2014) and Hui et al. (2012) state that apartments from high floors provide nice views
and hence, their sale is initiated at high prices. Clean air is also one perceived benefit to
occupy high floors. In a study from New York, Jung et al. (2011) identified that airborne
pollutants from traffic and sound were lower in apartments above fifth floor especially during
winters and cool weather. According to Hui et al. (2012), low quality of air negatively
affected housing unit prices lower than the 20th floor. According to Chung and Park (2006),
occupants prefer to work across high floors in super tall building due to good air quality. So,
on this basis, it can be said that well developed countries attract employees and it can
improve economic condition of countries.
Less noise pollution is also a major perceived benefit in high rise building. According to
Brown et al. (2015), the exposure of road traffic noise was measured in terms of maximum
exposure from high rise floor, approximately 71 storeys. Even though floor did not
significantly predict self-reported disturbance or annoyance, Brown et al. (2015) suggests
that high floor residents hold the tendency of experiencing less noise events in comparison
with low floor residents. Nevertheless, there is no denial in the fact that the negative
implications of high rise construction tend to outweigh its positive implications.
2.4 Factors Affecting High-Rise Construction
Among the most significant elements for a living environment in a city is the residential area.
The system is unified in a city in terms of the following scientific elements: individual,
apartment, building, neighbour, and residential area. As per these elements, the residential
environment has complex mechanisms and features (Ustinov et al., 2018). An individual who
interacts with the residential area is known for performing non-productive aspects across
populated regions. Across big cities, the overall establishment of the living area consists of
buildings with multiple storeys, modern public spaces, and high rise constructions. These

cause variations in wind and temperature conditions across the terrains while aggravating the
ecological scenario (Baiz et al., 2016). High- density residential region of the city is an
important aspect of the metropolitan region in which there is creation of comfortable living
aspects for the residents. This exposes them to the consistent effect from sources of pollution.
According to Abramov (2018), the structure of any high-rise building is a combination of
horizontal and vertical bearing structures,which collaboratively provide stability, rigidity and
strength of the structural system. The key priority while designing and constructing a high-
rise building lies in ensuring their stability and strength, along with rigidity (Abramov, 2018).
Significant consideration is also laid on the impact of substantial wind forces, and on
overcoming the uneven shortening of vertical structures from reinforced concrete under the
influence of load (Lapidus and Abramov, 2018).
The construction of high-rise buildings primarily involves materials like concrete and steel,
along with other materials. The first use of strong steel frames for constructing the renowned
Fuller Flatiron building in New York in the year 1902 resulted in significantly increasing the
number of floors in construction compared to the stone (Lapidus and Abramov, 2018).
According to Korolchenko and Kholshchevnikov (2017), the rigidity of the construction
helps in withstanding the wind loads, while providing the required flexibility for resisting
seismic fluctuations. There is use of steel profiles and light curtain panels of darkened and
transparent glass, polymers and aluminium in the facades of high-rise buildings in the current
era (Korolchenko and Kholshchevnikov, 2017).
Thev enlisted systems of these buildings are finished with metal sheets, artificial or natural
stone, and fibre concrete or concrete with fibres of polymers and metal. Moreover, there are
also innovative facade constructions that are designed for increasing the durability and
strength of the building, enhancing protection from excessive heat and fire in the premises,
and compensating for variations in loads within the internal premise, even related to the
movement of furniture (Voskresenskaya and Vorona-Slivinskaya, 2018). There is also
utilisation of modern forms of cladding that involve ceramics with borosilicate glass for
making the glass resistant to fire, glass panels with water repellent self-cleaning layer, nano-
composites, panels of metal foam, and so on.
During the construction of high-rise buildings, there are special requirements that are
forwarded to the air conditioning, fire extinguishing, elevator and other engineering systems.

There is also utilisation of special construction technologies, like the ‘Top-Down’ technology,
in certain instances (Romanova, 2018). The Top Down technology has been widely utilised in
the construction of high-rise buildings in Russia, including the Lakhta Centre in St.
Petersburg (see Figure 4) and facilities in Moscow City Complex. This is primarily due to the
fact that the Top Down method enables the opportunity of almost simultaneously constructing
the aboveground and underground parts of the building. This result in accelerating the overall
time required for completing the construction process, followed by subsequent return on
investment (Gazpromneft East European Projects, 2018).
Moreover, it is also essential to consider that this method enables reduction of deformations
in the enclosing structures, considering the drafts of neighbouring buildings. The Top Down
construction method involves the reverse approach of bottom-up construction in which the
final building is constructed from the top to bottom of the basement, including deep
excavations (Korolchenko and Kholshchevnikov, 2017). With this approach, the construction
of the basement floors takes place with the progress of excavation.
Figure 4: Lakhta Centre in St. Petersburg
(Source: Gazpromneft East European Projects, 2018)
According to Ustinov et al. (2018), excavation work in the foundation pit is done from
underneath the floors with the help of arranged technological openings. The underlying floors
are also concreted in sequence with the removal of the ground. In constructions that use the
Top Down technology for protecting the excavation from modern conditions, there is often

utilisation of ‘wall in the ground’ in the form of a versatile structure that has the potential to
absorb vertical loads of underground floors and protect from groundwater (Ustinov et al.,
2018). There has also been a substantial increase in block or modular construction of high-
rise structures.
Few of the notable examples of such buildings include the 30-storey T30 Hotel in China that
was constructed in 15 days by 200 workers using the technology of Chinese construction firm
BSB (Broad Sustainable Building); the 25-storey Victoria Hall in Wolverhampton, UK; and
the 29-storey SOHO Apartments in Darwin, Australia (Thai et al., 2020). BSB has also been
working on the construction of an838 metre tall skyscraper, Sky City, in Changsha, China.
The skyscraper has been planned to have 220 floors in total, with 6 floors below the ground.
In the recent years, there has been an increasing acceptance of high-rise construction as a
strategy for urban development across several major cities because of the scarcity of land
areas. High-rise construction imposes significant negative as well as positive implications on
urban environments through changes in the natural pattern of wind flow and reduction in land
occupation and urban impervious surfaces (Song et al., 2019). However, in urban areas, it is
essential to protect pervious surfaces in order to decrease the frequency of flood and storm
flow.
Certain researchers like Nemry et al. (2010) have also argued that the environmental impact
of high-rise construction on patterns of wind flow patterns is important in order to establish
strategies for ensuring sustainable urban development. In the recent past, several studies like
Yoon et al. (2015) and Song et al. (2019) have been conducted on the environmental impact
of high-rise construction, with specific emphasis on simulation of air flow around high-rise
buildings. The findings of these studies depict the notable impact of high-rise structures on
the air flow patterns, along with the accumulation of air pollutants in the nearby region (Song
et al., 2019). In their research, Yuan et al. (2019) examined the association between effective
factors in urban environments with dense high-rise structures, and noise pollution. The
findings of the study depict that controlling the complex shape of buildings, spatial
distribution of high-rise residential buildings, and the proportion of buildings coverage are
important factors for the reduction of noise pollution levels, and hence, determine the
sustainability of the urban built environment (Yuan et al., 2019).

There has also been an increase in focus on the energy efficiency of high-rise buildings in
order to improve their sustainability throughout the lifecycle of the built project. Energy
efficient high-rise construction is achieved by reducing the energy demand with the help of
solutions such as double skin facades, which reduce solar gain and improve insulation while
maximising natural light (Szolomicki and Golasz-Szolomicka, 2019). Furthermore, energy
efficiency in high-rise construction is not only restricted to reducing the demand, but also
involves exploring solutions that make use of on-site energy generation into building designs.
One of the key examples is the 240-metre-tall Bahrain World Trade Centre that has wind
turbines incorporated as a measure of improving energy efficiency and environmental
performance (Ahmad et al., 2017). In addition, Self-Monitoring Analysis and Reporting
Technologies(SMART) have emerged as a powerful tool for creating innovative new ways of
sustainable solutions in high-rise buildings through integration with digital platforms. In this
context, data is fed by numerous SMART sensors into the integrated Building Management
Systems (BMS) for allowing the high-rise structure to adapt and optimise for enhanced
energy efficiency, safety and security(Chowdhury and Islam, 2019). Hence, the adoption of
these strategies in an integrated manner can create value for residents and the society as a
whole, by providing a blueprint for sustainable high-rise construction.
2.5 Appropriate Materials and Construction Technology for High-Rise Buildings
The construction of high rise buildings has an inextricable link with efficiently searching for
construction material (Mohamed and et.al., 2019). Technological establishment across
material engineering are known for gradually shaping the energy efficiency, construction,
height and form of building. Initially steel was considered extremely crucial for constructing
building as there was insufficient development of the concrete technology (Generalova and
Generalov, 2020). The production of concrete has limited strength in comparison with steel.
In the current scenario, Bester (2013) highlights the interest growth in concrete as the key
structural material for the construction of such buildings. Figure 5 compares material system
applicable in high rise construction more than 200 meters of height based on the global
database of tall buildings as per CTBUH (2015 to 2019).

Figure 5: Comparing Material System Applicable in High-Rise Construction (2015 to 2019)
(Source: Szolomicki and Golasz-Szolomicka, 2019)
For constructing high-rise buildings, there has been a development of mixed technologies for
steel-concrete in buildings such as Kingdom Centre (Saudi Arabia), One57 (USA), Princess
Tower (UAE), Burj Khalifa (UAE), Petronas Twin Tower (Malaysia). Out of 100 high-rise
buildings across the globe, nine buildings are constructed in steel structures, 30 in reinforced
concrete, five in reinforced concrete and steel, and 56 in composite structures (Emporis, ND).
According to Sev and Çirpi (2014), various advancements in the field of physical science
have resulted in the establishment of intelligent materials, specifically for improving the
acoustic light thermal and electrical environment of the constructed buildings. Specific
trending materials and technologies are discussed further ahead in this section of the chapter.
Concrete: Since the past few years, there is considerable progress to model the rheological
and physical attributes of concrete. Additional admixtures can help in significantly increasing
strength, accelerating the cure of concrete, and enabling construction at high and low
temperatures. VHSC (very high strength concrete) and self- consolidating concrete led the
concrete to be extremely adequate material structures for very tall buildings such as Kingdom
Tower and Burj Khalifa (Voskresenskaya and Vorona-Slivinskaya, 2018). According to
Marshall and Knapp (2013), VHSC is known for a compressed strength worth 240 MPa with

the incorporation of steel fibre reinforcement within the mixture while achieving a flexular
strength of 40 MPa in tensile.
Figure 6: Categories of Concrete Structure for High Rise Buildings
In addition, the overall establishment of construction technology moves the form-works with
high speed and accuracy of disassembly and assembly, along with vertical transportation
systems (Marshall and Knapp, 2013). Higher fire resistance, fast strength growth than prices,
and highly susceptible shaping are additional benefits for the utilisation of concrete. The
establishment of concrete technology and methodological approaches of construction
businesses not only enabled the widespread development of higher skyscrapers, but also
diversified their shapes and forms.
Steel: Despite rising number of high rise construction involving high strength concrete, steel
is still considered irreplaceable in seismic areas of the construction industry (Wood and Du,
2017). In the current scenario, Japan is among the most advanced nations with respect to the
establishment of steel structures. Irrespective of unfavourable geographical areas related to
the frequency and occurrence of earthquakes, Japan is known for building structures like
Tokyo Sky-Tree (tallest free- standing tower at 634 meters) and Akashi Kaiyko bridge
(among the tallest bridges of suspension across the globe at 1991 meters) (Sergievskaya et

al., 2018). Without any doubt, the factor affecting the overall establishment of such structures
was the improved efficiency of steel which represented favourable development.
Figure 7: Frame Structure of Steel and Concrete in a High Rise Building
The technology of Thermo-Mechanical Control Process (TMCP) was utilised for obtaining
steel of high strength. The technology is a set of controlled rolling, which was favourable to
refine the microstructures by the introduction of dislocation in a high range of temperature
(Thai et al., 2020). In addition, accelerated cooling realizes the quenching impact while grain
growth is suppressed. With limited technology based on carbon, high performance materials
of steel with excellent efficiency and weldability can be developed. The utilisation of strong
steel in high rise construction was a result for initially constructing bridges. In the current
scenario, there is availability of steel with a tensile strength of more than 1200 N/mm (Yuan
et al., 2019).
There was achievement of this high strength by the establishment ofdual phase steel,
structurally composed by soft and hard material, and Transformation Induced Plasticity
(TRIP) steel. In TRIP steel, the plasticity impact of unstable austenite is created on the basis
of materialistic transformation. Apart from the tendency of increasing steel strength, steel was

being demanded with a low yield stress, which were initially utilised for constructing
vibration dampers (Romanova, 2018). As the plastic deformability of strong steel is less than
the strength of conventional steels, the entire building is able to achieve performance with a
combined utilisation of dampers.
Nanotechnology and Smart Material: There can be division of smart materials in specific
groups: fibre optic sensors, and chemostrictive, magnetostrictive, thermostrictive,
photostrictive, electroactive, and piezoelectric materials. Such smart materials consist of
components related to a smart structure, which presents electronic enhancement of physical
framework (Sev and Çirpi, 2014). As a significant example, piezoelectric materials present
scope for conversion of mechanical energy as electric energy after it is strained. There has
been a development of piezoelectric dampers as a case of controllable materials.
There are additional aspects of smart materials like alloys of shape memory. This is utilised
as sensors of temperature for ventilation or as actuators for monitoring and sensing devices.
Nanotechnology improves the properties of glass through pollution reducing, antimicrobial,
and self- cleaning properties (Szolomicki and Golasz-Szolomicka, 2019). Nano-particles of
titanium dioxide create a smooth surface of anti- adhesive coating.
Glass: The technological advancement of high-strength glazing is equally significant as
concrete and steel for the construction of high rise buildings. In such cases, the key
challenges are in context with altitude, temperature and wind load differences, which further
condense water vapour (Achintha, 2016). Other crucial factors are heat and light. In
considering high rise constructions, there is a possibility for condensing steam that appears on
the glass outside, resulting from temperature differences between external and internal
elements.
The utilisation of low pollution glass in the form of internal pane prevents heat from entering
the building. Low-Emissivity (Low-E) glass assists in reflecting radiations of long wave
while minimising the overall transmission (Chua et al., 2018). Treatment of glass through
heat hardens or strengthens the glass while making it stronger and withstanding extreme
temperature and wind-load differences. In case of high-rise construction, a wide range of
glass categories are utilised based on the climatic zone. For completely characterising glass
system, it is crucial for specifying the following attributes: glass visible transmittance,
coefficient of solar heat gain, and U-value (Achintha, 2016). U-value is also known as

thermal transmittance, which is the rate at which heat is transferred by a structure.Table 1
below identifies the indicative attributes of different glass categories.
Table 1: Indicative Attributes of Different Glass Categories
Type of Glass Thickness
(in cm)
Visible
Transmittance
U-
Factor
Coefficient
of Solar
Heat Gain
Coated Film (Double suspended) 0.32 55 0.10 0.34
Argon gas fill based coated film
(Suspended)
0.32 53 0.19 0.27
Coated Film (Suspended) 0.32 55 0.25 0.35
Low-e (High efficiency) 0.63 70 0.29 0.37
Low-e Double (Soft- coat) 0.63 73 0.26 0.57
Low-e Double (Pyrolitic) 0.32 75 0.33 0.71
Insulated Triple Pane 0.32 74 0.36 0.67
Reflective Double Bronze 0.63 21 0.48 0.35
Insulated Double Pane 0.63 79 0.48 0.70
Single White Lamination 0.63 73 1.06 0.46

Single Pane 0.63 89 1.09 0.81
(Source: Szolomicki and Golasz-Szolomicka, 2019)
U-value depicts the level of heat flow because of radiation, convection, and conduction by a
glass due to differences in temperature between the outside and the inside. The higher the
level of U-factor, maximum heats transfer is enabled from windows during winters. Solar
Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC) depicts how much energy from the sun strikes the glass while
transmitting heat (Naidu et al., 2021). SHGC depicts the energy level from sun that strikes
the glass to transmit heat. With the increase of SHGC, there is enhancement of solar energy
gains through the window. Visible transmission depicts the share of visible solar spectrum
reflecting transmittance from glass (Szolomicki and Golasz-Szolomicka, 2019).
Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT): Developed in the years 1990s in Germany and Austria,
such massive wood panels have started to become extremely common in construction of high
rise buildings. The idea significant to the use of timber is similar to that of plywood.
However, it utilises thick planks of wood rather than thin layers of wood. As a result, the
massive panels help architects in developing tall buildings made out of wood that are fire
resistant and strong similar to the ones made from concrete.
With excellent strength, carbon gathering properties, and good resistance to fire, timber
provides a number of advantages. For example, buildings made from timber need limited
foundational tasks as the structures constructed are extremely light. The actual process of
construction is also considerably quieter and faster in comparison with traditional
construction. Figure 6 identifies key concerns of using timber in large scale construction
while identifying positive possibilities regarding the same.

Figure 8: Key Concerns and Considerations of Timber Use in Buildings
Timber with glue lamination can be utilised as a material of long span. There can be
prefabrication by the use of metal connectors in trusses that spread approximately 45 metres.
However, the most economic forms of timbers are the purely shaped compressions of arch
vaults spreading across 93 metres, and ribbed domes spreading across 107 metres.
Additive Manufacturing from Structural 3D Printing: Even though 3D printing is a
technique instead of a material, it is still relevant to high rise construction because 3D printers
are used for producing polymer panels or concrete, modules, and structures. In the year 2016,
the first full sized house in the world made from 3D printing was completed only within 45
days in China (Beijing) (see Figure 7).

Figure 9: 3D Printed House in Beijing, China
Bioplastics: Bioplastics are polymers with high durability made out of renewable biomass
instead of petroleum. This is a less costly material, which can be utilised along with 3D
printing, and is fully recyclable and biodegradable.

Figure 10: Eco-friendly Construction of Bioplasic Building
Innovative Energy Systems: The achievement of high efficiency in energy of modern high
rise construction holds the requirement of several ecological conditions that consider the
stages of construction and design. Satisfaction of requirements enables the maximum
utilisation of available energy in ambiance, while reducing heat loss across buildings and
limiting demand for electricity and heat (Yuan et al., 2019). Among the most financially
intensive requirements is the scope of heating and ventilating the building, while accounting
for 30 per cent of energy demand in high rise construction.
The utilisation of natural ventilation is an extremely famous solution for reducing such costs.
The inner atrium helps in supplying light in the building interiors (see Figure 8). The full
windows height creates a scope for light to reach inside the house sufficiently. Therefore,
there is no need for utilising artificial light in majority of the days (Lubin, 2019). The scope
of ventilation is maintained in the rooms with well designed windows, constructed through a
three layer system of façade with air gaps to enable air circulation.
Figure 11: Atrium in the Hotel of Marina Bay Sands
(Source: Lubin, 2019)
The utilisation of free energy out of renewable sources like low temperature geothermal,
biomass, wind, and sun energy, has also become extremely popular. This is the specific
domain of passive construction and energy saving construction of buildings. Out of the
activities the precede project implementation, selecting the exact location is extremely

significant and leads towards the efficient utilisation of available sources for renewable
energy (Korolchenko and Kholshchevnikov, 2017).
Other elements include the scope to adapt architectural design as per building location, local
micro-climate conditions, orientation accuracy to the sun, and correct shape of building
surroundings. The building location should be providing good conditions of isolation and
highest number of sunshine hours on annual basis(Lotfabadi, 2014).
Life cycle assessment is a common method utilised for evaluating the carbon emission and
energy consumption of buildings and the materials that are used for its construction. Life
cycle assessment considers the life-span of high-rise buildings. Hence, the aspects of carbon
emission and energy consumption must be divided in three stages; construction, operational,
and end of life stage (Dong et al., 2015). The table below identifies the materialistic
configuration for different categories of construction in high rise buildings. It acknowledges
the advantages and disadvantages of different materials identifying the efficiency of height
limit.
Categor
y
Sub-
Categor
y
Material/
Configur
ation
Efficien
t Height
Limit
(In
Storeys)
Advantages Disadvantages
Framed
Tube
- Steel 80  Efficient in
resisting lateral
loads by
identifying
lateral load
resisting systems
at the building
perimeter
(Lukmanova and
 Shear lag results
in hindering
efficient tubular
behaviour.
 Obstruction of
view due to
narrow column
spacing.

Golov, 2018).
 Least
interference is
created, with
planning of
interior space.
Concrete 70  Same as above  Same as above
Braced
Tube
with
Interior
Columns
Steel 110  Efficient in
resisting lateral
loads due to axial
forces in braced
tube member
(Liang et al.,
2021).
 Broader column
spacing in
comparison to
framed tubes.
 Lesser shear lag.
 Obstructed view
due to bracings.
Concrete 100  Same as above  Same as above
without
Interior
Columns
Composit
e or Steel
150  Taller in
comparison to
traditional braced
tubes with
interior columns
because of
minimised uplift
 Requires longer
span floor
structures that
span the overall
building width.

forces(Generalov
a and Generalov,
2020).
Braced
Megatub
e
Composit
e
170  Efficient in
resisting
overturning
moments by
corner mega-
columns in
comparison to
traditional braced
tubes.
 Easy designing
of perimeter
gravity columns
between corner
mega columns
using progressive
mechanisms for
preventing
collapse
(Generalova and
Generalov,
2020).
 Obstructed view
due to bracings.
Bundled
Tube
- Steel 110  Minimises shear
lag in
comparison to
framed tubes.
 May lead to
interior planning
limitations
because of
intermediate
interior column

lines.
Concrete 110  Same as above  Same as above
Diargid Uniform-
angle
Diagrid
Steel 100  Efficient in
resisting lateral
loads using axial
forces in diagrid
members(Xue et
al., 2016).
 Complicated
joints.
 Obstructive
diagonals.
Concrete 80  Same as above  Slow
construction
 Expensive
framework
Composit
e
110  Same as above  Slow
construction
Varying-
angle
Diagrid
Composit
e or Steel
130  Efficient in
carrying lateral
loads than
uniform angle
diagrids for
slenderer and
taller
buildings(Choi et
al., 2016).
 Construction is
expensive
compared to
uniform-angle
diagrids.
Tube-in-
Tube
- Internal
Core
90-150
dependi
 Effective in
resisting lateral
 Limitations in
interior planning

Tube
(concrete,
steel or
composit
e) +
External
Core
Tube
(concrete,
steel or
composit
e)
ng on
tube
combo
loads through
two layers of
tubes.
because of
interior core
tube.
Space
Truss
- Composit
e
150  Efficient in
resisting lateral
loads due to axial
forces in space
truss members
 Obstructed view
due to bracings.
Superfr
ame
Stand-
alone
Steel 170  Efficient in
resisting lateral
loads using
versatile super
frame
configurations
(Yim et al.,
2018).
 Building form is
significantly
dependent on the
structural
system.
Concrete 100  Same as above  Same as above
Conjoine Composit 250+  Efficient in  Requires large

d Towers e producing
extremely tall
buildings.
 Multiple
emergency
alternatives (Mah
et al., 2016).
sites.
Figure 1: (Materialistic configuration for different categories of construction)
In the current scenario, green rating systems of buildings such as Green Star
emphasise upon the ecological effect of buildings regarding the operational usage. Even
though the selection of construction materials significantly affects the carbon release and
footprint of buildings, it is still not recognised by majority of the rating systems (Gan et al.,
2017). It is important to address such deficiencies while the green systems mandate the
adoption of a more life-cycle and holistic approach.
Buchanan et al. (2013) highlighted that 85 per cent of the total emissions of green gas in
buildings is sourced by the operations. In case of a typical building, operational energy
includes maximum energy consumption for cooling and heating (65 per cent), for lighting (16
per cent), for electrical appliances (6 per cent), and for hot water (15 per cent). Majority of
the buildings, given there is appropriate insulation, deliver similar performance amongst
alternate materials of building such as timber, steel, and concrete (Buchanan et al., 2013). It is
worth noting that there is a common to reduce operational energy as the energy efficiency of
modern buildings is improving.
Buchanan et al. (2013) further reflected that in case of a life cycle approach, the ecological
impact of disposing, demolishing, constructing and recycling the buildings along with the
material has to be taken into consideration. The researchers assume that the life span of a
building is 60 years. Based on the data presented by Buchanan et al. (2013), the potential of
global warming in the life cycle of high rise buildings is provided below with key emphasis
upon end of life, embodied CO2, operational energy (Op energy), and maintenance
considering material usage of timber, steel, and concrete.

Figure 12: CO2 Emissions throughout the Life Cycle of High Rise Buildings
(Source: Buchanan et al., 2013)
The limitation in adopting this approach is that the sequestration and abatement of
greenhouse gases is extremely valuable in the current era than it is going to be in the years to
come. There can be introduction of other technologies as well for significant reduction in the
cost of sequestration and abatement, or producing no or low energy emissions (Buchanan et
al., 2013). An alternate approach of considering this is to ensure clear economic analysis for
discounting carbon credits cost in the years to come.
Conclusion
It has identical been summarised from the above literature that high buildings and
increasing residential buildings are having negative impacts on natural environment as it
changes wind direction that leads air pollution. For building residential areas, people cut trees
and make use of natural resources to the great extent and it is affecting needs of future
population. It has further discussed some factors that are increasing needs of building
residential areas and high buildings such as: increasing population, changing needs of
people and improving living standard. Along with this, above study has shown some
effective ways of decreasing negative impacts of high buildings such as: using bio plastics
and utilisation of natural ventilation.

Chapter 3: Research Methodology
3.1 Introduction
Research methodology can be defined as the overall process in which a study is designed
systematically by a researcher in order to ensure valid and reliable findings that address the
research objectives. In other words, it is the set of procedures and techniques and procedures
that have been used for the identification, selection, analysis, and processing of data related to
the investigated topic (Saunders et al., 2007). This research has focused on demonstrating and
describing the impact of high-rise buildings on the natural environment, while considering
the use of appropriate materials and construction technology in UK. Chapter 3 seeks to assist
readers in better understanding and evaluating the reliability and validity of the overall
research.
Figure 13: Research Onion Framework
Research Philosophy- Interpretivism
Research Approach- Inductive
Reasoning
Research Method- Qualitative
Research Strategy-
Systematic Literature
Review
Data Collection
and Analysis
Method -
Secondary data
collection,
Thematic
analysis

(Source: Saunders et al., 2007)
This chapter will focus on justifying the choices of design, and reflecting on the alignment of
chosen methods and techniques in terms of addressing the research objectives. For this
purpose, the Research Onion framework has been adopted for illustrating on the various
stages of conducting the research. The research onion model has been helpful in order to
symbolically illustrate the various approaches through which different elements of the
research have been examined for developing the final research.
3.2 Research Philosophy
Research philosophy can be regarded as the belief regarding the manner in which data related
to a certain phenomenon has to be gathered, utilised and analysed (Alharahsheh and Pius,
2020). There are four key types of research philosophy, namely positivism, interpretivism,
realism and pragmatism. The type of data collected in a research determines the research
philosophy to be adopted in a research. As this research has been conducted by collecting
secondary data, the research has adopted the research philosophy of interpretivism.
The interpretivism research philosophy is set on the assumption that singularity or objectivity
is not present in social reality, which is rather shaped through human experiences and social
contexts (Alharahsheh and Pius, 2020). This research philosophy also considers the historical
and cultural situation of trust and knowledge, which is subjective based on live experiences
and understanding. The interpretivism research philosophy has been applied in the research as
it assists in understanding the reason behind the behaviour of particular individuals in a
specific manner (Pham, 2018).
Hence, adoption of this research philosophy has enabled the research to investigate and
demonstrate the impact of high-rise buildings on the natural environment by conducting a
detailed assessment of words, actions and behaviours. The interpretivism philosophy has
assisted the research in identifying and assessing the views and opinions of other authors and
experts regarding the factors that can be interpreted for understanding the impact of high-rise
buildings on the natural environment. Hence, the application of interpretivism philosophy is
relevant for this research as it enables key insights regarding the positive and negative
implications of high-rise buildings and construction activities on the natural environment.

3.3 Research Approach
Research approach can be defined as the plan that consists of different steps in order to
widely assume detailed methods to collect, analyse, and interpret data (Azungah, 2018).
There are two key types of research approach that can be adopted by a research, namely
inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning. The key focus of this research has been on
collecting secondary data, and hence, there has been adoption of the inductive research
approach to demonstrate logic in the findings drafted. The research approach of inductive
reasoning lays key emphasis on the approaches adopted in order to generate or collect data,
with lesser emphasis on the analytical methods used to interpret data (Azungah, 2018).
Hence, the research has reviewed multiple articles and data sources as secondary data in
order to derive key themes, models and concepts about the impact of high-rise buildings on
the natural environment while considering the use of appropriate materials and construction
technology in UK. The inductive reasoning approach has been adopted in the research in
order to summarise the diverse range of secondary data collected. Applying this approach has
enabled the research with the opportunity to develop clear connection between the research
aim and the review of articles (Woiceshyn and Daellenbach, 2018).
The incorporation of inductive reasoning is relevant for this research as it helped in the
effective presentation of meanings, experiences and reality among participants. The research
has also critiqued the findings in order to evaluate the key factors that influence the quality
and sustainable design of high-rise buildings, and recommend the utilisation of adequate
construction technology and materials for effective construction of high-rise buildings.
Hence, the research will present the final findings in the form of an inductive argument, and
in congruence with the themes that are identified from the article review. Therefore, the
incorporation of the inductive research approach is highly relevant for this research conduct.
3.4 Research Method
In order to achieve the research objectives set in Chapter 1, there has been application of the
qualitative research method. This can be regarded as a scientific research method that can be
used in order to answer certain research questions by systematically utilising predefined
procedures on the basis of collected evidences (Willig, 2017). The research has adopted the
qualitative research method due to its effectiveness in providing insights related to a

particular industry. This research method has also been adopted as qualitative research
enables valuable data that can be used in identifying existing trends related to high rise
construction, including data related to residential needs, environmental impact, and material
usage.
The application of qualitative method in this research provided a valuable opportunity to
explore the opinion of existing authors and researchers, as well as investigate contradictory
individual opinions, emotions, beliefs and perceptions (Taylor et al., 2015). Therefore, the
adoption of this research method has been crucial for identifying the implications of high-rise
construction on the natural environment, as well as recommending the utilisation of
appropriate materials and technology for effective construction of high-rise buildings.
Furthermore, as this research has focused on deriving and presenting descriptive data, the
research has considered the application of systematic literature review strategy and thematic
analysis method for interpreting the key findings. Hence, implementing the qualitative
method in presenting the findings of the research is highly relevant as it enhances the
credibility as well as clarity of the research.
3.5 Research Strategy
Research strategy can be defined as the action plan that directs the thoughts and efforts of the
research in order to address the research aim and objectives with detailed reporting and
relevant findings (Jahan et al., 2016). As mentioned earlier, the research has adopted the
research strategy of systematic literature review for the purpose of conducting the study. It
can be defined as a research strategy that involves identifying, selecting and appraising
research for the purpose of answering a clearly formulated research question.
A systematic review follows a well-defined plan or protocol in which the criteria are stated
clearly prior to the conduct of the review (Xiao and Watson, 2019). With the adoption of this
strategy, the research has conducted a transparent, comprehensive search over multiple
databases with the help of a well-thought out search strategy that specifically focuses on
achieving the research objectives.
The research has conducted the systematic review reviewing 11 research articles that were
specific to the impact of high-rise buildings and construction on the natural environment. The

Systematic Literature Review (SLR) has been conducted in this research on the basis of the
following steps (Jahan et al., 2016): searching (defining database categories and search
terms), appraising (predefined exclusion and inclusion criteria), synthesising (extracting and
categorising data), and analysing (deriving conclusions).
3.6 Data Collection and Data Analysis
For the purpose of achieving the research objectives, the research has focused on the conduct
of a systematic review. Hence, the research involves the collection of secondary data.
Secondary data indicates data that have been collected in the past by other researchers apart
from the actual researcher (Johnston, 2017). This suggests that collecting secondary data for
this research has been dependent on the online availability of information regarding the
implications of high-rise construction on the natural environment. Even though, the research
initially listed out 44 articles during the process of collecting data, there has been selection of
only 11 articles for the systematic review after the application of predefined exclusion and
inclusion criteria. Articles that were included were on the basis of their reliability. Some
inclusion criteria of articles and secondary data include: data that were published within 5-10
years for getting latest and reliable data. Articles in which English language is used were
included and data that were relevant to construction and high building, all were included.
Exclusion criteria are: data that were published before 2010. Data that are not bookmarked
were also excluded.
The below Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta Analyses (PRISMA)
model illustrates the selection of articles for the systematic review.

Figure 14: PRISMA model for selection of articles
The research reviewed the selected articles on the basis of their research aim, research
method adopted, and final findings drafted. The systematic review has been presented in
Chapter 4 of this research. The below table illustrates the specific inclusion and exclusion
criteria that has been adopted during the selection of articles for the systematic review.
Table 2: Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria forSystematic Literature Review(SLR)
Inclusion Criteria Exclusion Criteria
Articles with at least 4 of the following
keywords: High-rise buildings, high-rise
construction, construction technology,
material, environmental impact, and
sustainability.
Articles with less than 4 of the mentioned
keywords.

Articles published during the years 2010
and 2020.
Articles published before 2010.
Articles published across relevant and
credible sources like journals, books and
online publications.
Articles published in non-credible sources.
Articles available in English language. Articles unavailable in English.
Articles with complete availability of
complete text.
Articles without full text availability.
The research has made adoption of the thematic analysis method for the purpose of analysing
the data. Thematic analysis is a commonly used qualitative data analysis methods used in
order to analyse a dataset and realise patterns of meaning within the data (Terry et al., 2017).
The research has adopted the thematic analysis method in order to closely examine the
findings of the selected articles, and identify common patterns, themes and meanings for
achieving the research objectives. The themes that have been identified are elaborated and
discussed in Chapter 5 of the research.
3.7 Summary
In order to conduct the research and draft the key findings, the research has emphasised on
the collection of secondary data, and conducting its theoretical analysis. For this purpose, the
research has selected and systematically reviewed 11 research articles specific to the key
words - high-rise buildings, high-rise construction, construction technology, material,
environmental impact, and sustainability. The research has presented the systematic review in
tabular format based on the research aim, research methodology, and key findings of the
articles. The research has further identified and discussed key themes in order to draft the
final findings of the study.

Chapter 4: Data Analysis
4.1 Overview
In order to present the key findings of this research, 11 research articles were selected as per
specific inclusion and exclusion criteria, and PRISMA framework. The selected articles were
reviewed and analysed based on their research aim, methodology, and key findings. The
themes were identified based on the common aspects of the research articles under
investigation. Table 3 presented in section 4.2 of this chapter provides a tabular representation
of the secondary data collected for this research.
4.2 Systematic Literature Review (SLR) and Key Themes
Autho
r
(Year)
Research Aim Research
Methodology
Key Findings
Yim et
al.
(2018)
To assess the
life cycle
emissions of
greenhouse
gases (GHG) in
buildings by the
consideration of
cradle-to-grave
boundary
specifically
considering
high-rise
residential
building in
Hong Kong.
Case-specific
assessment and
quantitative
evaluation of GHG
emissions.
The environmental impacts from
using, constructing and
decomposing buildings are highly
dependent on the type, climate and
region of buildings.
Estimated GHG emissions were
approximately 213.03t CO2e per
flat and 4980 kg CO2e per metre
square. The operational energy of
high-rise buildings caused more
than 85.82 per cent of the total
emissions, while 12.69 per cent
from materials, 1.14 per cent from
renovations, 0.07 per cent from
additional factors, and 0.28 per cent

from decomposition (Yim et al.,
2018).
This goal can be accomplished by
measuring impacts of green house
gases on each stage of its
production. There are number of
systems that can help out in
knowing impacts of green house
gases. Renewable standards can
also make people able in knowing
influence of high rise residential
buildings.
There is scope of utilising measures
for carbon reduction like eco-
design, recycled materials,
renewable energy, and energy
efficient equipment.
Theme 1: Huge impact of high rise
residential buildings on micro-
climatic and environmental
conditions
Giyaso
v and
Giyaso
va
(2018)
To analyse the
establishment of
high-rise
construction of
buildings in
urban regions
while assessing
the effect of
Calculation and
comparative analysis
for the cities of
Vladivostok,
Khanty-Mansiysk,
and Moscow.
High rise buildings impact the
temperature conditions and local
aerodynamics of the territories.
Ecologically unfavourable areas
with stagnant air tend to develop in
open spaces (Giyasov and
Giyasova, 2018).
High rise buildings across urban

high rise
construction on
the living
environment.
regions result in accumulating heat
and forming urban islands of heat.
It increases carbon emission and
changes the direction of wind. Due
to changing direction of winds
because of poor wind resistance, it
has negative impacts on natural
environment. Increasing air
pollution is one of the main
examples of negative impacts of
high rise buildings on environment.
Density and spatial plasticity of
high rise construction impact the air
pollution and terrain aerodynamics.
There is a huge impact of high rise
buildings on environmental and
micro-climatic conditions such as:
air pollution, lack of wild animals
and others (Giyasov and Giyasova,
2018).
Tomina
ga and
Shirzad
i
(2021)
To investigate
the effect of
high rise
buildings on the
wind
environment of
pedestrians
across
neighbouring
buildings.
High resolution
measurement of
wind tunnel
The construction of high rise
buildings makes drastic changes in
the wind environment across
buildings with respect to
instantaneous and time averaged
flow properties. This is due to the
complicated interaction between
flows across buildings, above and
within surrounding canyons of
street (Tominaga and Shirzadi,

2021).
High rise buildings develop a large
gust factor region which collides
the street flow and downwash flow.
The instantaneous velocity of
power spectrum density is not only
around buildings but also across
surrounding streets. It affects health
of people as increasing air pollution
increases chances of skin cancer.
Nasab
et al.
(2020)
To assess
environmental
impacts of
construction
materials in the
subsector of
high rise
buildings.
To select best
type of materials
contributing
towards
minimum
environmental
impact in the
entire life cycle.
Case study analysis
of residential tower
in Iran (Tehran
Metropolitan City)
Maximum environmental impacts
of high rise construction include
human non-carcinogenic toxicity,
water consumption, land use, fossil
resource scarcity, and scarcity of
mineral resources, carcinogenic
toxicity, and global warming.
Other mid level impacts accounting
for 5 per cent of the environmental
impact include formation of fine
particulate matter, scarcity of fossil
resource and mineral resource, and
water consumption (Nasab et al.,
2020).
Most sustainable materials for
building construction include
concrete, rebar, window frame, and
metal mould. There are number of
other resources and materials that

can be used for having minimum
negative impacts of high rise
residential buildings such as:
LEED, bio plastic and others. By
knowing effectiveness of these
resources with secondary data or
literature, this goal can be
accomplished.
Theme 2: Supports the
accommodation of larger
population in vertical cities
Astarin
i and
Utomo
(2020)
To recognise the
factors of
performance-
based building
design factors
that engineers
and architects
apply while
designing and
planning high
rise buildings in
Indonesia.
Survey questionnaire
distributed to 68
participants with
descriptive analysis
Four factors were considered highly
significant: loss risk, design
collaboration process, building
management, and interests of
occupants. There is a need of
integrating performance based
building design within the BIM
system for allowing sustainable
interoperability of high rise
buildings (Astarini and Utomo,
2020).
Theme 3: BIM implementation
Building information modelling can
help out engineers in managing
tasks that has undergone many
changes. It protects engineers from
negative changes and failure of
projects as they can identify

requirement of changes at initial
stage. So, on this basis, it can be
said that by making use of this
system, this goal can be
accomplished.
Manzo
or et al.
(2021)
To explore the
impact of
implementing
Building
Information
Modelling
(BIM) systems
in high rise
buildings.
Systematic
Literature Review
and integration of
structural equation
modelling and
exploratory factor
analysis.
Five components for successful
implementation of BIM include:
safety improvement, sustainability,
coordination, visualisation, and
productivity. It can better be known
by understanding steps of BIM
implementation. Engineers can
know impacts of BIM
implementation by comparing
outcomes of construction of
buildings with those projects in
which they had not implemented
BIM. This comparison can help
them out in identifying difference.
The usage and awareness level of
BIM technology in high rise
buildings remain limited (Manzoor
et al., 2021).
BIM implementation in the domain
of high rise construction can be
considered crucial for the
improvement of sustainable
development.
Sun et To identify key Comprehensive Specific factors curbing the

al.
(2020)
factors curbing
the
establishment
and construction
of high rise
modular
buildings.
literature review
along with a focus
group research.
development of high rise modular
buildings are: complex
connectivity, poor integration of
supply chain, absence of building
standards and codes, lack of
expertise and experience, absence
of government support, high cost,
and lack of communication and
coordination between stakeholders
(Sun et al., 2020).
In order to deal with these
challenges, the potential solution
lies in the implementation of BIM
for optimising modular
construction.
Maleki
et al.
(2019)
To develop a
new model of
sustainability
assessment on
the basis of
Spanish
Integrated Value
Model for
Sustainability
Assessment
(MIVES)
method
specifically as
per residential
high rise
buildings with
Secondary data
collection, and
model design and
application.
The key indicators of social
requirements for high rise
construction include user flexibility,
thermal comfort, social interaction,
public space safety, criminal
security, fire safety, earthquake
safety, healthcare aspects, noise
pollution, natural lighting, indoor
air quality, and cultural landscape
(Maleki et al., 2019). Proper
training to employees in
construction sector, negative
impacts of high rise residential
buildings on environment can be
decreased. It can also make them
able in successful implementation

the
consideration of
social indicators.
of construction standards and
development of new standards.
For balancing ecological and
economic sustainability with social
sustainability, high rise building
need to lay emphasis upon
aesthetics, comfort, sense of
belonging, security and safety.
Theme 4: Social requirements of
residents
Thai et
al.
(2020)
To critically
review current
innovations in
technology of
modular
construction for
high rise
building while
focusing upon
structural
robustness,
progressive
collapse, joining
techniques and
structural
systems.
Systematic
Literature Review
Modular construction demonstrates
various advantages in context with
eliminating environmental impacts,
reducing cost, and saving
construction period in comparison
with traditional construction on-
site.
Modular methods are highly
suitable for high rise buildings
while shaping the future scope of
construction industry (Thai et al.,
2020).
Considering recent advancements
in materials of construction, high
strength steel and concrete are
preferably utilised for reducing
composite size in lower high rise
building. These are subjected to

maximising gravity loads.
Theme 5: Modular construction
Scouse
et al.
(2020)
To quantify
changes in the
impacts of
regional
economy
resulting from
shift in building
construction to
mass timber
from concrete.
Opportunity cost
comparison using the
Framework building,
12 story structure
proposed for Oregan
(downtown
Portland).
Construction of high rise buildings
using mass timber can present an
innovative and unique style of
green building construction for
meeting demands of high rise
construction during the utilisation
of regionally sustainable and grown
wood resources (Scouse et al.,
2020).
The prefabricated properties of
timber based construction enables
improvement of urban
sustainability by efficient utilisation
of resources while incorporating
principles of design for disassembly
such that panel reuse can be
maximised along with
deconstruction of building. By
proper and continuous
measurement and controlling,
quantify changes in regional
economy impacts can be decreased.
This aim can be accomplished by
proper measurement and
controlling.
Countries like Japan, Canada, UK
and Australia are adopting policies

of wood encouragement for the
promotion and facilitation of timber
utilisation in new buildings
construction (Scouse et al., 2020).
Theme 6: Timber and concrete
Liang
et al.
(2021)
To assess
economic and
environmental
performances of
high rise timber
based building
in the Northwest
region of US
Pacific.
Life cycle cost
analysis and life
cycle assessment
High rise buildings made from
timber have 9.6 per cent high level
of life cycle cost in comparison
with concrete buildings.
The higher cost is mainly driven by
front end cost of construction,
specifically cost of mass timber,
which is a considerably unknown
parameter (Liang et al., 2021).
The design and service life span of
building enabled the recycling
scope of mass timber which can
reduce the life cycle cost of
buildings made from timber.
4.3 Summary
Based on the articles systematically reviewed in this research, 6 relevant themes were
identified. According to theme 1, high rise construction has a huge impact on the micro-
climatic and environmental conditions of the surrounding areas. Theme 2 states that high rise
construction supports the accommodation of larger population in vertical cities which is a
major benefit. Theme 3 states that BIM implementation is a major factor that impacts the
successful construction of high rise buildings. Theme 4 identifies that social requirements of
residents tend to impact the overall planning, construction and operability of residential high

rise buildings. According to theme 5, modular construction is an important trend for the
effective and sustainable construction of high rise buildings. Finally, theme 6 emphasises
upon the comparison between timber and concrete as appropriate material for high rise
construction.

Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusion
Introduction
This chapter is going to discuss impacts of high rise buildings of construction
activities on natural environment by secondary or published data. There are 2 main themes
that can help out in knowing all about construction activities and their critical impacts of wild
life animals, people and environment. Further, it will discuss some factors that can contribute
in increasing needs or rise of high buildings in both developed and developing countries.
Some resources and standards related to construction sector helps out in decreasing negative
impacts of building constructions on environment.
RO1: To identify the positive and negative impacts of high-rise buildings and construction
activities on the natural environment.
Tall, high rise buildings are constructed out of the need of achieving and developing a society
for highly dense population groups. This presents the opportunity of controlling urban sprawl
with a considerably smaller carbon foot print. The positive and negative impacts of
constructing high rise buildings can be evaluated in terms of factors like safety, emotional,
economic, environmental and social factors (Rafiei and Adeli, 2016). According to theme 1,
major negative impacts of high rise construction are specifically related to micro-climatic and
environmental implications.
As per the SLR conducted in this research, the environmental impacts from using,
constructing and decomposing buildings is highly dependent on the type, climate and region
of buildings. According to Yim et al. (2018), estimated GHG emissions were approximately
213.03 CO2 emissions per flat and 4980 kg CO2 emissions per metre square. The operational
energy of high-rise buildings caused more than 85.82 per cent of the total emissions, while
12.69 per cent from materials, 1.14 per cent from renovations, 0.07 from additional factors,
and 0.28 per cent from decomposition (Yim et al., 2018). Hence, the key findings of the
research conclude that there is scope of utilising measures for carbon reduction like eco-
design, recycled materials, renewable energy, and energy efficient equipment.
Further ahead, according to theme 1, high rise buildings impact the temperature conditions
and local aerodynamics of the territories. Ecologically unfavourable areas with stagnant air

tend to develop in open spaces. According to Giyasov and Giyasova (2018), high rise
buildings across urban regions result in accumulating heat and forming urban islands of heat.
Density and spatial plasticity of high rise construction impact the air pollution and terrain
aerodynamics. There is a huge impact of high rise buildings on environmental and micro-
climatic conditions (Giyasov and Giyasova, 2018). In addition, theme 1 highlights that the
construction of high rise buildings make drastic changes in the wind environment across
buildings with respect to instantaneous and time averaged flow properties. This is due to the
complicated interaction between flows across buildings, above and within surrounding
canyons of street (Tominaga and Shirzadi, 2021). High rise buildings develop a large gust
factor region which collides the street flow and downwash flow. The instantaneous velocity
of power spectrum density is not only around buildings but also across surrounding streets.
As identified under theme 1, maximum environmental impacts of high rise construction
include human non-carcinogenic toxicity, water consumption, land use, fossil resource
scarcity, scarcity of mineral resources, carcinogenic toxicity, and global warming. The high-
density residential areas are integral parts of any metropolitan area, which facilitate
comfortable living conditions for the residents. However, these areas are also vulnerable to
the constant impact of pollution. The key sources of air pollution in these residential areas are
road transport, industrial enterprises, and heating boiler houses (Razali et al., 2017).
The increasing number of high-rise residential buildings, business and public and centres
across big and metropolitan citieshas also led to an increase in use of transportation sources
and business activities. According to Giyasov and Giyasova (2018), modern cities with high-
rise structures can be regarded asa fairly effective system to heat the surfaces of buildings,
roofs, sidewalks and roads with solar heat. Simultaneously, the high density of construction in
particular areas has resulted inhinderingthe process of natural aeration, resulting in the
development of urban heat islands that further impact the pollution levels (Giyasov and
Giyasova, 2018).
The positive impacts of high rise buildingsare demonstrated in this research by the perception
and experience of occupants who are living and working in high rise buildings. One
significant benefit of living in high floors is the significance of an unobstructed view (Nasab
et al., 2020). According to theme 2 identified in the SLR, apartments from high floors provide
nice views and hence, their sale is initiated at high prices. Clean air is also one perceived

benefit to occupy high floors. The SLR conduct assisted in identifying that airborne
pollutants from traffic and sound were lower in apartments above fifth floor especially during
winters and cool weather. As per Tominaga and Shirzadi (2021), low quality of air negatively
affected housing unit prices lower than the 20th floor. Hence, the SLR identifies that
occupants prefer to work across high floors in supertall buildings due to good air quality.
Less noise pollution is also a major perceived benefit in high rise building. According to
theme 2, the exposure of road traffic noise in minimum in high rise floors. Even though floor
did not significantly predict self-reported disturbance or annoyance, the research suggests that
high floor residents hold the tendency of experiencing less noise events in comparison with
low floor residents (Nasab et al., 2020). Nevertheless, there is no denial in the fact that the
negative implications of high rise construction tend to outweigh its positive implications.
As per the SLR conducted in this research, there are several local and strategic implications
of high rise buildings. The widespread construction of high rise buildings can actually end up
overloading the infrastructure of cities, affecting its utilities, roads and public transportation.
The building size can actually present significant direct impacts on the experience of people
residing in high rise buildings.
RO2: To critically evaluate key factors that are leading increasing needs of residential
buildings that have negative environmental impacts.
The research findings have identified various design factors warranting consideration for the
accomplishment of high performance, sustainable tall building by the application of
innovative technologies. The findings reflect how technology transfers like modular
construction have contributed to the achievement of high performance in tall building
systems (Milana et al., 2014). As designing high rise buildings require a multi-disciplinary
approach integrating communication systems, heating, ventilation and air conditioning
(HVAC), structure and architectural components, there are complex integrated systems in the
analogy of tall buildings.
According to theme 3, key design factors that are critical for the achievement of tall buildings
are community development, ecological balance, water usage, energy consumption, material
usage, structure, environment, and site context. Due to the diverse design aspects for tall
buildings with enormous scales as a type of building, the type of information guiding the

design is mostly extremely complex, and shared by disciplinary professionals (Generalova et
al., 2016). Further ahead, the factors of design assume various forms like socio-cultural,
environmental, economic, physical, schematic, and conceptual factors. There is a demand for
smart integration and design, which is the key foundation towards buildings of high
performance.
The design team of high- rise buildings consist of different professionals with the common
goals set initially that the building will be offering optimum performance, while respecting
and understanding the mission of each other (Bahramian and Yetilmezsoy, 2020). The goal
must be clarified and the performance will remain mostly measurable, attainable and
oriented. In case of high rise buildings, the complete integration of engineering and
architecture is critical. A well-integrated building of high performance will be incurring a
considerably higher cost in comparison with a regular one, while offsetting low operational
costs. According to theme 3, it is necessary to maintain an integrated process due to their
scale followed by the fact that green design impacts several building elements, like
daylighting(Generalova and Generalov, 2020). This in turn is related to cooling loads, electric
lighting controls, interior finishes, floor-to-floor heights, façade design, building form,
orientation, and site consideration.
Integration between the hardware elements of buildings can be approached through three
different goals. Components should be sharing the space. Their arrangement must be resolved
aesthetically, and they should be working together without conflicting one another.There are
three categories of integration, namely, physical, visual, and performance integration(Dong et
al., 2015). Physical integration is about sharing space or ensuring a fit. Visual integration is
related to the achievement of visual harmony. Performance integration is about sharing
functions with other systems and components. The building of Shanghai and Hong Kong
Bank, developed by Foster and Partners is a great example in which the visual expression of
the physical building components and systems create a strong aesthetic influence(Xue et al.,
2016).
The Integration Web of Tall Building System is an important tool used for assisting engineers
and architects in the process of decision making by the clear definition of relationships in all
physical sub-systems and systems of tall buildings. While every building needs integration, a
better scope of integration is required for the sustainability of tall building during the initial

stages involved in the design process. There is a need to ensure the coordination of
interdependent, complex systems (Lukmanova and Golov, 2018). However, overemphasis of
integration throughout the conceptual project phase can be a huge disadvantage with the
consideration of Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) credits. The
checklist points of LEED are extremely useful to identify measures for persuasion, majority
of which benefit through integration. However, initial focus on individual credits within the
design process can also impact the production of design integration with the mentality of
point chasing(Yim et al., 2018). This can result in driving up project costs and hence, the
project team members may forget about the collaborative involvement of all tasks.
According to theme 3, four factors were considered highly significant: loss risk, design
collaboration process, building management, and interests of occupants. There is a need of
integrating performance based building design within the BIM system for allowing
sustainable interoperability of high rise buildings(Bahramian and Yetilmezsoy, 2020). As per
Manzoor et al. (2021), five components for successful implementation of BIM include: safety
improvement, sustainability, coordination, visualisation, and productivity. The usage and
awareness level of BIM technology in high rise buildings remain limited. BIM
implementation in the domain of high rise construction can be considered crucial for the
improvement of sustainable development (Manzoor et al., 2021).
On the other hand, Sun et al. (2020) identified that specific factors curbing the development
of high rise modular buildings are: complex connectivity, poor integration of supply chain,
absence of building standards and codes, lack of expertise and experience, absence of
government support, high cost, and lack of communication and coordination between
stakeholders. In order to deal with these challenges, the potential solution lies in the
implementation of BIM for optimising modular construction (Sun et al., 2020).
RO3: To recommend the use of appropriate materials and construction technology for
effective construction of high-rise buildings.
Majority of the high rise residential buildings are constructed out of reinforced concrete. In
the past, buildings were constructed out of concrete and brick and majority of the modern
buildings are constructed from higher shares of steel. However, concrete is still the
standardised material involved. Additional materials that are used for the construction of high

rise building are multi-mode optical (MMO) fibre or glass, skin cladding (constructional),
external cladding, plastics, glass, metal, and brick.
Timber
According to theme 6, construction of high rise buildings using mass timber can present an
innovative and unique style of green building construction for meeting demands of high rise
construction during the utilisation of regionally sustainable and grown wood resources. The
prefabricated properties of timber based construction enables improvement of urban
sustainability by efficient utilisation of resources while incorporating principles of design for
disassembly such that panel reuse can be maximised along with deconstruction of
building(Lotfabadi, 2014). Countries like Japan, Canada, UK and Australia are adopting
policies of wood encouragement for the promotion and facilitation of timber utilisation in
new buildings construction. High rise buildings made from timber have 9.6 per cent high
level of life cycle cost in comparison with concrete buildings. The higher cost is mainly
driven by front end cost of construction, specifically cost of mass timber, which is a
considerably unknown parameter (Liang et al., 2021). The design and service life span of
building enabled the recycling scope of mass timber which can reduce the life cycle cost of
buildings made from timber.
As per the SLR conducted, it can be stated that timber with glue lamination can be utilised as
a material of long span. There can be prefabrication by the use of metal connectors in trusses
that spread approximately 45 metres. However, the most economic forms of timbers are the
purely shaped compressions of arch vaults spreading across 93 metres, and ribbed domes
spreading across 107 metres (Choi et al., 2016). These are mostly used as buildings of
industrial storage for materials like potassium, salt and alumina that will end up corroding
concrete or steel. Such structures of timber are mostly found only close to forested regions as
transporting timber to different areas can end up increasing the cost.
Aluminium
Engineers are evolving their practices considering the usage of different material for
constructing tall buildings (Yoon et al., 2015). Light materials can assist in reducing structure
weight and simplifying the construction activities. In this context, aluminium in windows and
facades of high rise buildings is a great example indicating this trend. In building envelopes

and facades for high rise construction, indisputably, aluminium is the best material for use in
high rise construction buildings in combination with other materials like concrete with glass
reinforcement, composite panels, and glass (Yim et al., 2018). The biggest benefit of
aluminium is the combined properties of simplicity and good mechanical attributes, for
obtaining profile shape that maintain specified suitability with respect to performance and
aesthetics. Mechanical performance is to ensure the ability of façade for resisting stress
factors like component weight and wind pressure that enters the composition, and the ability
of possibly accommodating structural movements (Choi et al., 2016). This includes small
natural structural or thermal movements, reaching significant displacement when building
have to be secured from earthquake.
Out of the factors requiring accommodation, the most significant ones supporting the use of
aluminium are energy saving, water and air tightness, energy development, and lighting. In
addition to these, additional factors like cost effectiveness, economic performance, maximum
recyclability and sustainability will remain highly decisive (Voskresenskaya and Vorona-
Slivinskaya, 2018). In terms of these points as well, aluminium provides unique
characteristics for supporting high rise construction.
Concrete
After realising the need for durable structures of concrete, the materials composing concrete
are undergoing major changes. While earlier it was made from three to four materials (like
water, aggregates and cement), a typical durable concrete in the current era can include more
than six materials. Utilising low ratio of water cement provides scope for reducing the size
and volume of capillary concrete voids (Scouse et al., 2020). This alone is insufficient for
reducing cement specific material of concrete which is an important source of micro-cracking
from drying shrinkage and thermal shrinkage.
For reducing content based on cement, there must be maximum reduction of cement and
water content in concrete. Concrete combines with limited number of micro cracks, produced
by combining mineral admixtures with cement, either in the cement plant or in the batching
plant (Sev and Çirpi, 2014). This provides scope for enhancing the life of servicing structures
made of concrete with maximum cost effectiveness.

Life cycle assessment is a common method utilised for evaluating the carbon emission and
energy consumption of buildings and the materials that are used for its construction. Life
cycle assessment considers the life-span of high-rise buildings. Hence, the aspects of carbon
emission and energy consumption must be divided in three stages; construction, operational,
and end of life stage (Lapidus and Abramov, 2018). In addition, the overall establishment of
construction technology moves the form-works with high speed and accuracy of disassembly
and assembly, along with vertical transportation systems. Higher fire resistance, fast strength
growth than prices, and highly susceptible shaping are additional benefits for the utilisation of
concrete (Marshall and Knapp, 2013). The establishment of concrete technology and
methodological approaches of construction businesses not only enabled the widespread
development of higher skyscrapers, but also diversified their shapes and forms.
Conclusion
6.1 Final Conclusion
The aim of the research is to demonstrate and describe the effect of high-rise buildings on the
natural environment while considering the use of appropriate materials and construction
technology in UK.In order to present the key findings of this research, 11 research articles
were selected as per specific inclusion and exclusion criteria, and PRISMA framework. The
selected articles were reviewed and analysed based on their research aim, methodology, and
key findings. The themes were identified based on the common aspects of the research
articles under investigation.
In the current scenario, green rating systems of buildings such as Green Star emphasise upon
the ecological effect of buildings regarding the operational usage (Kovačević and Džidić,
2018). Even though the selection of construction materials significantly affects the carbon
release and footprint of buildings, it is still not recognised by majority of the rating systems.
It is important to address such deficiencies while the green systems mandate the adoption of a
more life-cycle and holistic approach. Buchanan et al. (2013) highlighted that 85 per cent of
the total emissions of green gas in buildings is sourced by the operations. In case of a typical
building, operational energy includes maximum energy consumption for cooling and heating
(65 per cent), for lighting (16 per cent), for electrical appliances (6 per cent), and for hot
water (15 per cent) (Buchanan et al., 2013).

Majority of the buildings, given there is appropriate insulation, deliver similar performance
amongst alternate materials of building such as timber, steel, and concrete. It is worth noting
that there is a common to reduce operational energy as the energy efficiency of modern
buildings is improving. The positive impacts of high rise buildings are demonstrated in this
research by the perception and experience of occupants who are living and working in high
rise buildings. One significant benefit of living in high floors is the significance of an
unobstructed view (Nasab et al., 2020). According to theme 2 identified in the SLR,
apartments from high floors provide nice views and hence, their sale is initiated at high
prices. Clean air is also one perceived benefit to occupy high floors. The SLR conduct
assisted in identifying that airborne pollutants from traffic and sound were lower in
apartments above fifth floor especially during winters and cool weather.
The research findings have identified various design factors warranting consideration for the
accomplishment of high performance, sustainable tall building by the application of
innovative technologies (Giyasov and Giyasova, 2018). The findings reflect how technology
transfers like modular construction have contributed to the achievement of high performance
in tall building systems. As designing high rise buildings require a multi-disciplinary
approach integrating communication systems, HVAC, structure and architectural components,
there are complex integrated systems in the analogy of tall buildings. Majority of the high rise
residential buildings are constructed out of reinforced concrete (Fantilli et al., 2019). In the
past, buildings were constructed out of concrete and brick and majority of the modern
buildings are constructed from higher shares of steel. However, concrete is still the
standardised material involved. Additional materials that are used for the construction of high
rise building as discussed and compared throughout this research are Multiple Mode (MM)
fibre or glass, skin cladding (constructional), external cladding, plastics, glass, metal, and
brick.
6.2 Practical Recommendations
The construction of high rise buildings has an inextricable link with efficiently searching for
construction material. Technological establishment across material engineering are known for
gradually shaping the energy efficiency, construction, height and form of building. Initially
steel was considered extremely crucial for constructing building as there was insufficient
development of the concrete technology (Generalova and Generalov, 2020). The production

of concrete has limited strength in comparison with steel. In the current scenario, the key
findings of this research highlight that the interest growth in concrete is the key structural
material for the construction of such buildings.
The design team of high- rise buildings consist of different professionals with the common
goals set initially that the building will be offering optimum performance, while respecting
and understanding the mission of each other. The goal must be clarified and the performance
will remain mostly measurable, attainable and oriented (Astarini and Utomo, 2020). In case
of high rise buildings, the complete integration of engineering and architecture is critical. A
well-integrated building of high performance will be incurring a considerably higher cost in
comparison with a regular one, while offsetting low operational costs. According to theme 3,
it is necessary to maintain an integrated process due to their scale followed by the fact that
green design impacts several building elements, like day lighting (Abramov, 2018). This in
turn is related to cooling loads, electric lighting controls, interior finishes, floor-to-floor
heights, façade design, building form, orientation, and site consideration.
Integration between the hardware elements of buildings can be approached through three
different goals. Components should be sharing the space. Their arrangement must be resolved
aesthetically, and they should be working together without conflicting one another. There are
three categories of integration, namely, physical, visual, and performance integration.
Physical integration is about sharing space or ensuring a fit (Ahmad et al., 2017). Visual
integration is related to the achievement of visual harmony. Performance integration is about
sharing functions with other systems and components. The building of Shanghai and Hong
Kong Bank, developed by Foster and Partners is a great example in which the visual
expression of the physical building components and systems create a strong aesthetic
influence.
6.3 Limitations and Future Recommendations
As identified in the research, high-rise buildings, as a building type, is evolving at a rapid
pace and is significantly driven through technological advancements. Hence, high-rise
construction is having a significant impact on the built environment in regional, urban as well
as global scales. These attributes of high-rise buildings and their vast developments across the
globe require continuous documentation of timely updates on different aspects in order to

assist many related professionals, including engineers and architects, in keeping track of and
better understanding majority of the updated status of this quintessential building type.
Structural systems are certainly among the most fundamental technologies for high-rise
buildings, and have significantly evolved for addressing the continuously increasing design
requirements and the issue of global density. These high rise buildings necessitate frequent
updates on predictions and reviews of its structural systems. Moreover, it is highly likely that
there will be more advancement in structural systems for high-rise buildings in the upcoming
years. Moreover, it is also anticipated that there will be further updates with the appearance
of more and more number of high-rise buildings across cities in a meaningful manner.
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