Understanding Human Anatomy and Physiology: Functions, Features, and Organ Systems

This document provides an in-depth understanding of human anatomy and physiology, including the functions and features of cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. It explores the relationship between structure and function, as well as the role of the respiratory system in maintaining homeostasis. The document also discusses the process of homeostasis in the human body and the relationship between the nervous and endocrine systems in gaining homeostatic control.

Human Anatomy and
Physiology
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Table of Contents
MAIN BODY...................................................................................................................................3
1.1 Describe function and features...............................................................................................3
2.1 Outline structure and function of organ system.....................................................................4
2.2 Describe relationship between structure and function of organ system..............................12
2.3 Relationship of respiratory system with other systems........................................................12
3.1 Process of homeostasis in human body including some factors..........................................13
3.2 Role of homeostatic for healthy functioning of human body..............................................14
3.3 Relationship between nervous system and endocrine system in gaining homeostatic control
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4.1 Two types of genetic inheritance...........................................................................................1
4.2 Function of genetic screening................................................................................................2
4.3 Role of genetic counselling for healthcare practice...............................................................3
REFERENCES................................................................................................................................4
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MAIN BODY
1.1 Describe function and features
In human body there are various types of organs and organ system. they all perform
various functions. A human body is made of cells and tissues.
Cells – they are fundamental unit of life and is responsible for all life processes.
Features of cells:
It provides structure and support to body of organism
it holds nucleus for reproduction and cell growth
Each cell has one nucleus and membrane
Function of cells-
It provides support and structure. The collenchyma and sclerenchyma provide structure support
It facilitates growth through mitosis. Here, multiplication of cells occurs that give rise to new
organisms (Brown, Bowmar, and Power 2017)
Cells carry nutrients into chemical process.
Cells produce energy in b carrying out chemical reactions. For that they require energy
It creates metabolic reactions.
Tissue – a tissue is group of cells that perform specific functions
Features
Epithelium cover body and line body cavities
It provides movement to muscle.
The connective tissue protects body organs
Nervous tissue provides rapid internal communication
functions
It supports physiological function which perform special function.
They have different shapes and characteristics with functional properties.
Group of tissue makes up organ in body like brain and heart.
Organs-
Features
It works with other biological system to perform various functions.
Each organ performs distinct functions and is made up of tissue
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Functions
the respiratory organ helps in breathing
the digestive organ helps in processing food
the urinary organ eliminate waste
Organ system
Features
Its function depends on activity of organs (Entezari, and Javdan, 2016).
They work together to carry out certain function
Functions
Skeletal organ support and move body. it protects internal organs
muscular organ locomote heat production
nervous organ system coordinate activities of another organ system
Endocrine regulate body functions via hormones.
2.1 Outline structure and function of organ system
Endocrine-
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Structure – in this interstitial fluid and blood vessels transport hormones into the body. the
structure includes pituitary, thyroid, pineal glands, etc.
Functions - It contains cells, tissues, etc. that perform primary function. The main function is to
secrete hormones into fluid. the fluid then transports hormones into body. Also, pancreas
function in digestion and create insulin that regulate blood glucose level.
Nervous
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Structure – It is divided into two parts that is central and peripheral nervous system. The CNS is
integration and command center of body. Whereas PNS conduit between CNS and body.
Functions- there are 3 functions of it, first is sensation that is receiving info from environment to
find out what is occurring. Another function is response which means to produce response of
stimuli. the third is that stimuli received by sensory structure is communicated to process info. it
is known as integration (Shier, Butler and Lewis, 2018)
Digestive
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Structure – it beings from mouth and at end at anus. It consists of teeth,
function – its break down food and releases nutrients from it. each digestive organ performs
distinct function. However, there are 4 function that is ingestion, secretion, mixing, digestion and
absorption.
Cardio- vascular
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Structure- it consists of heart, blood vessels and blood. heart is divided into 4 chambers left and
right ventricle and atrium.
Function – it circulates blood vessels into body in order to provide cells with oxygen and
nutrients. Also, it helps in disposing of metabolic waste. the blood circulate oxygen throughout
body. The heart pumps blood and supply oxygen to body (Sturges, Maurer and Shankar, 2016)
Respiratory
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Structure- it consists of nose, lungs, bronchi, etc.
Function- It helps in breathing and deliver oxygen to cells in body. It protects from harmful
substance and irritants. It allows talking and smell
urinary
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Structure – It consists of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra.
Functions- it removes waste from body and releases hormones which is useful in regulating
blood pressure. Also, it helps in controlling of RBC. However, kidney remove waste urea and
balance water.
muscular
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Structure – There are three types of muscle that is skeletal, cardiac and smooth.
Function- it is responsible for maintaining posture, locomotion and circulatory system. they help
in walking, running etc. (Entezari, and Javdan, 2016)
Skeletal
Structure- It contains bones, skeleton, cartilages, ligaments, which connect bones.
Function- It provides support to body and facilitate movement of arms, legs etc. Also, it helps in
protecting internal organs and produce blood cells. the bones store minerals and fat.
immune
Structure- the system is spread throughout body and contains WBC, RBC etc.
Function – it protects body from harmful substance, germs, bacteria, etc. it also preserves
integrity of body.
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integumentary
Structure- It is hair, skin, nerves, glands, etc. that act as barrier ad protect body
Function – the main function of skin is to protect body against wind, water, sunlight etc.
furthermore, it absorbs and regulate heat within body (Brown, Bowmar, and Power 2017)
reproductive
Structure – in this structure differ in male and female. In female organs are vagina, uterus and
ovary whereas in male it contains penis, scrotum and testes.
Function – there are 3 function of system that is to produce eggs and sperm, to transport it
through cells and to develop offspring.
2.2 Describe relationship between structure and function of organ system
Human body is known as very complex as it is considered of functional system that is
composed of various tissues as well as organs. At each level of structure closely interlinked to
the function of the body as most importantly heart that reflects its job through pumping of blood
all over body. Digestive system are responsible for processing food and water. Respiratory
system is accountable for the taking up of oxygen as well as getting rid of carbon di oxide. Here
within the body structure skeletal and muscular system plays a vital role for movement also for
get rid of metabolic waste excretory system is used.
2.3 Relationship of respiratory system with other systems
Respiratory system has relationship with others systems and it requires working with
other organs in order to proper functioning and to keep the body alive. Cellular respiratory
system interact with other organs because it is a basic life process. It breaks down glucose with
oxygen in order to produce carbon dioxide as well as energy. Some functions of respiratory
system which shows that it has close relationship with cardiovascular, digestive and other
systems (Apostolopoulou, 2017). Some organs associated with respiratory system and works for
other system in order to keep body healthy include: lungs, pharynx, nasal cavities, trachea and
larynx.
Respiratory and circulatory In addition, one of the main function is this system helps people
and living organism in breathing and deliver oxygen to cells in body. It has close relation with
circulatory system for proper circulating life blood and oxygen throughput the body.
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Respiratory and digestive: Digestive system breaks down food and by making use of muscular
transaction it helps respiratory in moving blood and energy which is being transformed by food
through the digestive tract. It also requires oxygen for functioning in a proper manner.
Respiratory and endocrine: There is link between these 2 system as lungs and kidney require
working together for maintaining oxygen level within the blood. When blood level goes low then
kidney or organ of endocrine secretes erythropoietin which encourage formation of RBC which
helps in increasing blood level.
If they do not work together then it leads poor health as many of the time because of
failure of one organ, people become ill and their body stops functioning. Due to failure of one
organ, other associated functions of other organs also stop functioning and it affects health.
3.1 Process of homeostasis in human body including some factors
Homeostasis plays an important role in proper functioning as this system has an ability of
maintaining internal environment by responding to environmental changes in an effective
manner (Anna Dawgul and et.al., 2017). There are some factors in this system which help it out
in proper functioning such as:
Homeostatic regulations: Homeostasis has an ability to balance hormone level and other
things within cell which is important in proper functioning. Adjustment of systems within a cell
is considered as homeostatic regulations. Internal and external environment of cell keeps
changing which leads improper functioning and this homeostasis system makes adjustments for
reaching hormones level at a normal range.
Self regulating process: Homeostasis is known as self-regulatory process because
according to this system living organism maintain internal stability by adjusting external
changing situations as there are some sense organs
Feedback control: Homeostatic or ability of proper functioning is mainly maintained by
negative feedback loop which includes: effector, sensor, stimulus etc. Negative feedback in this
system decrease excessive response and keeping variable at a normal range. Controlling body
temperature as well as blood glucose level by adopting insulin at a range require for balancing
are examples of negative feedback.
Role of hypothalamus and pituitary gland: Hypothalamus and pituitary glands crease
hormones which helps in maintaining internal balance. Hypothalamus inhibits many of body's
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key processes like temperature and it is known as homeostasis or balanced functions (Joseph and
Whirledge, 2017).
3.2 Role of homeostatic for healthy functioning of human body
Homeostatic plays an important role in proper functioning of body because this system
release stimulus when hormone level increases or decreases in the body and make people
stressed, depressed and unstable and by doing so it maintains stability in the body. As per the
generated stimulus by different mechanism of this system such as: chemical regulation,
osmoregulation and thermoregulation, cells started functioning accordingly which helps in
proper functioning of cells. Responsible mechanism of homeostasis in healthy functioning
include:
Osmoregulation: It plays an important role in proper functioning as water movement in
the body is an example of it. Osmosis is being carried out by making an effective balance at both
cells' membrane. A proper balance help in proper and healthy functioning of biochemical
process.
Feedback regulation: In this type, responses to stimulus released by this homeostatic
system changes internal condition with this feedback regulation either in negative or in positive
manner (Berntson, Cacioppo and Bosch, 2017). After that it becomes a new stimulus and it
started self adjusting and this mechanism is known as feedback regulation. Positive feedback and
negative feedback both regulations work in biological system and its depend upon the type of
chemical released.
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Chemical regulation: Blood sugar control and use of insulin is chemical regulation.
Control of blood sugar is an example of negative feedback as after meal, blood glucose rises for
which insulin hormone is being released by pancreas which increases transport of glucose from
the blood. Secretion of insulin when decreases patient require external insulin for maintaining
blood sugar level and proper functioning.
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Illustration 1: Chemical regulation in Blood
Sources: (Role of Homeostasis in Human Physiology, 2020)

3.3 Relationship between nervous system and endocrine system in gaining homeostatic control
Nervous system consists of some cells which collect, process as well as respond to
information by making use of electronic signals. Endocrine is also like nervous system to some
extent as it produces as well as use chemical signals rather using electronic signals and these
chemical signals are known as hormones.
Nervous system and endocrine system both function together in order to maintain
homeostasis at the time of rest. For initiating and controlling movement also both endocrine and
nervous system require working together. For example: Some glands in endocrine system whose
main function is secreting hormones with nervous system for reproduction, human body growth,
metabolism etc. Brain structure or hypothalamus connect these both system. This
hypothalamus or brain structure is a tiny collection of nuclei which is mainly
responsible for controlling an impressive amount of behaviour. Main function of this system is
regulating thirst, hunger, sleep and other basic needs (Khanam, 2017). It has linked with some
glands of endocrine system as well as some of nervous system such as pituitary gland which is
mainly responsible in human body growth by controlling releasing of growth hormone. So, it can
be said that in human body growth and other functioning both nervous system and endocrine
system require working together and gaining homeostasis control.
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4.1 Two types of genetic inheritance
Genetic inheritance is a basic principle and explanation of ways in which characteristics
or disorders is passed from one generation to another. There are various kinds of genetic
conditions that are majorly caused by single gene mutations. Two types of genetic inheritance
are dominant and recessive. These kinds of conditions are generally inherited on the basis of
some patterns:
 Autosomal Dominant: Each affected person normally has an affected parent. One muted
copy of every gene within cells is sufficient to be affected by autosomal dominant disorder
(Paniello, 2017). Most of the people inherit this disorder for a parent who is affected
themselves. For examples: Huntington disease, Marfan syndrome.
 Autosomal Recessive: his type of disorder is not seen in every generation as in this both the
parents are carriers and are affected. It can also be said that both the copies of genes have
mutation. Both the parents carry a copy of mutated gene. It is not compulsory that both the
parents will be showing any kind of symptoms or sign of this condition. For example: cystic
fibrosis, sickle cell disease.
 X-linked dominant: It is a kind of genetic inheritance in this only female are affected in
which all the daughters will be affected, no son of the family will be affected. Son can be
affected only if mother is affected. This disorder mainly occurs when gene on X-
chromosomes is affected in either one of the parents. Example of this genetic inheritance is
fragile X syndrome. This it is less likely that son will be affected as father cannot pass their
X-linked traits to their sons.
 X-linked recessive: In this male are majorly affected and it is more likely that affected males
will be present in each generation (Kazachenka and et. al., 2018). This disorder is caused
when male have at least one copy of affected gene and females who have mutation will have
two copies of affected genes. It is extremely unlikely that females will be having two copies
so in this case son are affected. For example: haemophilia, Fabry disease.
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4.2 Function of genetic screening
Genetic screening can be defined as a kind of process which is used for analysis of skin
or blood for systematic search for a particular person with a particular type of genotype within a
defined population. It is one of the most important tools which is used for modern preventive
medicines. Genetic screening is used as a potential tool to lessen the devastating impact of
genetic disease (Kim and et. al., 2018). There are various kinds of incidences out of which Type
2 and 3 are so rare that in such case discovery can only take place when the child has already
been born with a kind of disorder. Type 1 is common in which a child must inherit a disease
from their parents. There are various functions of Genetic screening because of which it is used.
Some of the most common and important functions of Genetic screening are as follows:
 It is used for confirming diagnosis in patients with some symptoms and for diagnosis of a
specific genetic condition within them.
 To advice other family members of the patient who has been diagnosed with the disease
about whether they also have the disease or are carriers or are perfectly fine with none.
 It is also used for testing for a specific genetic mutation and to be used for modern preventive
medicines.
 It is also used for identifying possibility of developing a genetic condition.
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 It is also used for identification whether children of a parent with genetic disorder will be
having such kind of disease or will be a carrier by testing other parent whether they are a
sufferer or a carrier (Miyoshi and et. al., 2019).
 It is also used to identify undiagnosed sufferers who can be genetic markers of a disease. It is
done so that severity of disease, chances of becoming a carrier can be identified.
4.3 Role of genetic counselling for healthcare practice
Genetic counseling is a communication process that majorly aims in helping individuals,
families or couples to understand and adapt the medical, familial, psychological and reproductive
implications of the genetic contribution a specific kind of health condition. Genetic counseling
plays a vital role for healthcare practice in many ways (Stevenson and Davison). IT help in
providing information to families that have been affected by any kind of genetic disorder are at
the risk of getting affected by such kind of disorder. Genetic counseling serves as a central
source of information about genetic disorder. It is not only helpful for affected patients but it is
also helpful in providing information to healthcare professionals as well as to general public. It is
one of the most important things which is required to be focused upon for provision of expert
genetic services. It is also used to provide training to genetic counselors so that they can be
trained to provide correct and accurate information related to patients and their family members
about genetic risks, testing, and diagnosis. So that further discussion upon available options can
be provided to the patients.
Most of the genetic counselor's work within hospitals. Their main role is to provide
support to patients and their family members and also provide counseling so that risk of
inheriting genetic disorder within children can be reduced. this can be done by collecting
information about family history and inheritance patterns. So that recurrence risk can be
calculated (Stevenson and Davison). This also helps in identifying genitive testing and procedure
related to it. It is important in healthcare practices because it help in identification of maternal
age, genetic condition family history. With the help of proper genetic counseling health care
providers can reduce anxiety and tension of patient and their family members. It is also used as a
potential tool which is majorly used by health care practitioners so that potential outcomes can
be adjusted and risk of genetic disorder can also be reduced.
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REFERENCES
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Anna Dawgul, M. and et.al., 2017. Human host defense peptides-role in maintaining human
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Apostolopoulou, S.C., 2017. The respiratory system in pediatric chronic heart disease. Pediatric
Pulmonology. 52(12). pp.1628-1635.
Berntson, G.G., Cacioppo, J.T. and Bosch, J.A., 2017. From homeostasis to allodynamic
regulation.
Brown, S., Bowmar, A. and Power, N., 2017. Evaluation of an instrument to measure
undergraduate nursing student engagement in an introductory Human anatomy and
physiology course. Collegian. 24(5). pp.491-497.
Entezari, M. and Javdan, M., 2016. Active Learning and Flipped Classroom, Hand in Hand
Approach to Improve Students Learning in Human Anatomy and
Physiology. International Journal of Higher Education. 5(4). pp.222-231.
Joseph, D.N. and Whirledge, S., 2017. Stress and the HPA axis: balancing homeostasis and
fertility. International journal of molecular sciences. 18(10). p.2224.
Kazachenka, A., and et. al., 2018. Identification, characterization, and heritability of murine
metastable epialleles: implications for non-genetic inheritance. Cell. 175(5). pp.1259-
1271.
Khanam, S., 2017. Impact of stress on physiology of endocrine system and on immune system:
A Review. International Journal of Diabetes and Endocrinology. 2(3). pp.40-42.
Kim, K.W., and et. al., 2018. Expanded genetic screening in Caenorhabditis elegans identifies
new regulators and an inhibitory role for NAD+ in axon regeneration. Elife. 7.
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Miyoshi, C., and et. al., 2019. Methodology and theoretical basis of forward genetic screening
for sleep/wakefulness in mice. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences. 116(32). pp.16062-16067.
Paniello, I., 2017. Backwards genetic inheritance through coalgebra-graphs. Linear and
Multilinear Algebra. 65(5). pp.943-961.
Shier, D., Butler, J. and Lewis, R., 2018. Hole's essentials of human anatomy & physiology.
McGraw-Hill Education.
Stevenson, A.C. and Davison, B.C., 2016. Genetic counselling. Elsevier. Elliott, A.M. and
Friedman, J.M., 2018. The importance of genetic counselling in genome-wide
sequencing. Nature Reviews Genetics. 19(12). pp.735-736.
Sturges, D., Maurer, T.W. and Shankar, P., 2016. Academic performance in human anatomy and
physiology classes: a 2-yr study of academic motivation and grade expectation. Advances
in physiology education. 40(1). pp.26-31.
Online
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Role of Homeostasis in Human Physiology. 2020. [Online]. Available through
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review.php?aid=87462>
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