Negative Feedback Mechanisms in Body Systems

This assignment delves into the world of negative feedback mechanisms in body systems, highlighting the importance of maintaining set points within a system. It discusses how the body responds to high or low levels of a substance, such as glucose, and provides examples from various fields like neuroendocrine-immune circuits, long-duration measurements of whole-body vibration exposures, and real-time reconstruction of an animating human body from a single depth camera. The assignment also touches on impaired player-coach perceptions of exertion and recovery during match congestion, evolving concepts in enteroendocrine cell biology, and the modeling of supercritical carbon dioxide inactivation of bacteria in human body fluids clinical waste.

Human Psychology

Table of Contents
Human Psychology..........................................................................................................................1
Task 1...............................................................................................................................................1
1.1. Level of organisation in the human body.............................................................................1
1.2. Explain structure of an organ which performs several effective functions.........................1
Task 2...............................................................................................................................................2
2.1 Role of key components of balanced diet.............................................................................2
2.2 effects of three nutritional deficiencies on health.................................................................3
2.3 structure of digestive system relation among its functions of digestion, ingestion,
assimilation, absorption and egestion. .......................................................................................3
2.4 Determine how fats, proteins and carbohydrates are broken down chemically and
physically. ..................................................................................................................................4
2.5 Problems that are associated with proteins digestion and importance of enzyme activation.
.....................................................................................................................................................5
Task 3...............................................................................................................................................5
3.1 mechanism by which liver and kidney can retain glucose but eliminate urea. ....................5
Task 4...............................................................................................................................................6
4.1 reference to digestive system................................................................................................6
4.2 the regulation of blood glucose level using negative feedback.............................................7
References........................................................................................................................................8

Task 1
1.1. Level of organisation in the human body.
Several people mentioned that human body is similar to the machines because they both
perform many functions in different levels. Level of complexity therefore enhances at each
functional level. Such level of human body includes -
Cells :- it is described as a basic element of human body parts. These are the basic functional and
structural units which carries out life processes in a specialized manner to enhance the level of
survival (Hossain, Norulaini, Banana and Omar, 2016). Specific roles are played by every cells,
for example- electrical messages are carried out with the help of nerve cells whereas energy is
generated with the help of muscle cells because it consists of mitochondria.
Tissues : - tissues are characterized after cells under organisational structure of human body.
They both perform similar functions. Consisting of four types- muscle, epithelial, connective
tissues and nervous. Connective tissues forms out body structure, muscle tissues possess
uniqueness in contracting and resizing at different levels, the inner and outer lining of body
surfaces are done by epithelial tissues which protects organs and secretes substances of human
body. Lastly, nervous tissues focus in carrying electrical messages.
Organs and organ system :- this comes after tissues and this further consists of two or more types
of tissues which comes together to perform effective jobs. Such organs consist of- kidneys,
lungs, skins, brain and heart. Group of organs comes together to carry out complex tasks are
regarded as organ system (Burgess-Limerick and Lynas, 2016). Organ system are further
comprised of digestive, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, muscular, integumentary,
respiratory, nervous, reproductive, respiratory, urinary, immune and skeletal.
1.2. Explain structure of an organ which performs several effective functions.
Structure of the human body such as subatomic particles, molecules, organ system, cells,
tissues, biosphere and organisms are considered under different levels that enormously increase
in complexity. Scientists has considered blocks of matter in the simplest manner such as atoms,
molecules and subatomic particles to generate effective understanding of chemical level of
organizational structure (Sommer and Bäckhed, 2016). Elements are composed of pure
substances alike- carbon, nitrogen, calcium etc. further the smallest unit of such substances is
regarded as atoms. On the other hand if two or more atoms are bought together than it forms a
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molecule and are considered as chemical building blocks. Similarly, by combining sub atomic
articles including- proton, neutron, electron etc. generates atoms.
Independent unit which functions under living organisms are termed as cells. Organelles
are considered as water based cellular which consists of several tiny functioning units. Cells
basically performs effective functions that are a necessity under human life (Drucker, 2016).
On the other hand, specific functions of human body are undertaken with group of sells
are called tissues. While, structure of human body with distinctive functions among two or more
tissues are termed as organ. Physiological functions are performed by each and every organs.
The group of several distinctive organs are recognized as organ system. Organ system includes-
integumantary system, skeletal system, muscular system, nervous system, endocrine system,
cardiovascular system, lymphatic system, respiratory system, digestive system, urinary system,
male and female reproductive system.
The highest level of organization is considered as organism level. It consists of a cellular
structure which performs physiologic functions independently which is a basic necessity under
human life.
Task 2
2.1 Role of key components of balanced diet.
There are seven components of balanced diet which significantly performs effective roles
in day to day life of human beings. It includes-
Vitamins : - it comprises essential vitamins such as- vitamin A, B, C and D. by taking equal
amount of fruits and vegetables these all ideal vitamins can be obtained.
Unsaturated fats : - many of humans avoids intake of fats by assuming that it would lead in
generating weight gain. However, there are many health fats sources like dairy products, meat
and fish which contributes in generating vitamins and even regulates body temperature (Doeven,
Brink, Frencken and Lemmink, 2017).
Carbohydrates : - it generates excellent energy under human body and should intake about 60%
of human diet. Pasta, potatoes, wheat and rice are some effective carbs-rich food items.
Minerals :- these are the main component which enhances energy and promote growth in the
human body. For example- calcium enhances development of bone and teeth, iron helps in
gaining energy etc. iodine, sodium, potassium are regarded as the most effective unit of minerals.
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Fibre :- these components develops the proper digestion system in the human body. It even
maintains a cholesterol level under human body. Rich fibre items comprises bran, oatmeal and
vegetables.
Protein :- most of protein is generated from lean meat sources. Maximum 50 grams of protein
intake is very necessary for human beings and it further contributes in hair, muscles and skin.
Water : - intake of water is the most crucial component of human body which eliminates every
diseases and encourage hydration. At least 8 glass water should be intake in every human body.
2.2 effects of three nutritional deficiencies on health.
Three nutritional deficiencies and its affects over health includes : -
1. Thiamine deficiency : – it is the essential part under nervous system. It generates energy
under human body as a part of metabolism. If there will be a lack of thiamine than it will
cause fatigue and weight loss problem under human body. Not only this, short term
memory loss as well as confusion symptoms will be emerging which might damage
nerve, muscles and can adversely affect heart. Such deficiencies are noticed under
alcohol or drug addicted persons.
2. Niacin deficiency : - this is the most effective mineral which encourage human body to
convert food items into energy. Lack of such minerals could develop diseases or
disorders such as diarrhea, skin problem and dementia. By in-taking balanced diet could
eradicate such symptoms.
3. Calcium deficiency : - bones and teeth of human body are developed by consuming such
products which are rich in calcium. Deficiency in calcium would result in serious health
issues and can further lead to abnormal heart rhythms and convulsions (Pluske, 2016).
Not only this it can threaten a human body because of bone loss and several hormonal
changes.
2.3 structure of digestive system relation among its functions of digestion, ingestion,
assimilation, absorption and egestion.
Structure of digestive system consists of several stages and performs effective functions
including : -
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1. Digestion – this helps in breaking food particals at earlier stages so that it can be easily
assimilated or absorbed under human body tissues. This performs two processes
including- chemical and mechanical. Function of chewing and breaking of food materials
to further mix among stomach contents is performed under mechanical functions. On the
other hand, chemical process indicates that digestion function starts with the action of
saliva in the mouth. Such processes are developed merely under small intestine and
stomach.
2. Ingestion : - under this process food intake is further processed into alimentary canal.
This process starts directly at time when a human body has eaten up the food.
3. Absorption or assimilation : - when the tissues in the human body uptakes fluids or other
substance is termed as absorption.
4. Elimination :- the last level or stage of digestive system is regarded as elimination
system. This process is basically applied over entire digestive process related to the
exertion of waste products initiating from blood via urinary tract and kidneys.
2.4 Determine how fats, proteins and carbohydrates are broken down chemically and physically.
By the action of three primary enzyme's digestion of proteins undertake under the
stomach as well as the duodenum of human body. Those are- trypsin, pepsin and chymotrypsin.
These further helps in break down of food items into polypeptides and are further broken among
dipeptidases and exopetidases into amino acids.
Trypsin enzyme formulates trypsinogen by secrteted through pancreas which is further
taken a form of trypsin by activating enterkinase in duodenum. Further, cleavbes proteins are
broken into small polypeptides by trypsin.
Under human body amylose are considered as dietary starches consisting of glucose
which are further sequenced under long chain of polysccharide. During the process of digestion
pancreatic amlyaze and salivary breaks down the bond among glucose molecules which
demonstrates small chains of glucose. Such process emerges small molecules of glucose that can
be easily absorbed through small intestine (Chen, Cheng, Lai, C., Martin and Dang, 2016).
Whereas disaccharide glucose including cane sugar, beet sugar or table sugar is broken
down by sucraze enzyme. This yields glucose and sugar which is further digested with the help
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of small intestine. Similarly, small intestine further digests or absorbs lactase enzyme that breaks
down several components such as galactose, glucose etc.
hormones that stimulates pancreatic lipase within pancreas to enable fatty acids break
down are produced by small intestine with the presence of fats. Moreover, after complete
digestions of fat molecules it has resulted in creation of one glycerol molecule and three fatty
acid molecules. Not only this, RNA and DNA are further broken into mononucleotides by
nucleases deoxyribonuclease and ribonuclease, which is basically rescued by pancreas.
Enzymes activation is very important because it controls the chemical reaction speed
within human body. If there would be lack of enzymes than it will risks our human life. Many of
them help[s in breaking down molecules into smaller parts which is effective for proper
digestion. It further enhances the communication between cells which encourages control over
life, death and growth among human body.
2.5 Problems that are associated with proteins digestion and importance of enzyme activation.
There are several problems emerged due to proteins digestion. Proteins are crucial
element that are present under every food and beverages. There are chances that body may fail to
digest some protein products and results in adverse effect digestive system. Such protein
associated problems include:- protein intolerance and protein allergy.
When a human body fails to digest protein food elements than it result into protein
intolerance. For example- if a human body is having intolerant issues of milk products can
enhance in appropriation under digestions which result in complex activity related to absorption.
This can result in gas, stomach pain, bloating, nausea etc.
Malfunctioning of immune system results in food allergies. This creates protein products
into dangerous substances even when they are safe. Such mistakes leads in creating dangerous
infectious diseases.
Task 3
3.1 mechanism by which liver and kidney can retain glucose but eliminate urea.
To deal among excess amino acids which are present in a human body urea is produced.
Our body needs to assimilate it in a daily routine. Thus, this process is described as deamination.
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Further, such amino acids are separated and are further combined among harmless soluble
particles of urea compound which is basically known as nitrogenous excretory product.
By adopting a separate process urea is removed it from the human body with the help of
kidneys. After urea is produced it exits via the system of all body parts by leaving liver under
bloodstreams. It may affect the whole body if it builds up. Therefore, urea is continuously
removed from the body with the help of kidneys (Williams, Trewartha, Cross and Stokes, 2017).
It has been mentioned that the blood is filtered with the help of kidneys. Kidney is that excretory
organ who wants to get rid of only one waste substance that is urea.
On the other hand liver combines among ammonia with carbon dioxide in order to
generate waste substance that is urea out of the human body. This further excretes uric acid,
ammonia and creatinine. Thus, from the above procedure liver and kidney can retain glucose
while eliminating urea.
Task 4
4.1 reference to digestive system.
1. Contribution of reflexes in the coordination of system
effective digestive function is undertaken with contribution of several reflexes such as -
Long reflexes:- it involves sensory neuron which is helpful in transferring information to brains.
This further possesses danger, emotions, reactions on food etc.
Enterogastric reflex: - it is stimulated because of the senses and by such reflexes acids releases
acids under stomach in order top get it easily digested.
Gastroileal reflex : - to stimulate urge of defecate it works among gastrocolic reflex. This opens
the ileocecal valve to move digested components through small intestine.
Short reflexes : - under this system enteric nervous system is provided with shortcuts in order to
act effectively as well as quickly (Zieger and Schubert, 2017). It further reacts over chemical
changes and digestive movements.
GI peptides : - this acts over reaction of several tissues including digestive accessory organs,
brains and GI tract.
2. Comparing the role of nervous system with hormones in coordination of system
mechanism.
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Both the systems uses chemical messengers for signal cells but their transmission speed varies.
By using neurotransmitters and action potentials nervous system can easily respond over stimuli.
On the other hand, by secreting hormones under circulatory system endocrine system can
respond over stimulation. Similarly, response generated by nervous system are quick and for
short duration's whereas response of endocrine system are long lasting though slow.
4.2 the regulation of blood glucose level using negative feedback
Negative feedback is generally emerged when homeostatic process changes the direction
of stimulus. Under this process stimuli can be either increased or decreased. It is further used in
maintaining homeostatis and can achieve set points within a system (Ashley and Demas, 2017).
Similarly, if a level of body is high than mechanisms bring something to raise it whereas if levels
are too low, body would take measures to raise its glucose level. As insulin decreases the blood
glucose level which is the biggest negative feedback.
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References
Ashley, N.T. and Demas, G.E., 2017. Neuroendocrine-immune circuits, phenotypes, and
interactions. Hormones and behavior. 87. pp.25-34.
Burgess-Limerick, R. and Lynas, D., 2016. Long duration measurements of whole-body
vibration exposures associated with surface coal mining equipment compared to previous
short-duration measurements. Journal of occupational and environmental hygiene. 13(5).
pp.339-345.
Chen, Y., Cheng, Z.Q., Lai, C., Martin, R.R. and Dang, G., 2016. Realtime reconstruction of an
animating human body from a single depth camera. IEEE transactions on visualization
and computer graphics. 22(8). pp.2000-2011.
Doeven, S.H., Brink, M.S., Frencken, W.G. and Lemmink, K.A., 2017. Impaired Player-Coach
Perceptions of Exertion and Recovery During Match Congestion. International journal of
sports physiology and performance. pp.1-20.
Drucker, D.J., 2016. Evolving concepts and translational relevance of enteroendocrine cell
biology. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism.101(3). pp.778-786.
Hossain, M.S., Norulaini, N.N., Banana, A.A., and Omar, A.M., 2016. Modeling the
supercritical carbon dioxide inactivation of Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and
Bacillus subtilis in human body fluids clinical waste. Chemical Engineering
Journal, 296, pp.173-181
Pluske, J.R., 2016. Invited review: Aspects of gastrointestinal tract growth and maturation in the
pre-and postweaning period of pigs. Journal of Animal Science. 94(7supplement3).
pp.399-411.
Sommer, F. and Bäckhed, F., 2016. Know your neighbor: Microbiota and host epithelial cells
interact locally to control intestinal function and physiology. BioEssays. 38(5). pp.455-
464.
Williams, S., Trewartha, G., Cross, M.J., and Stokes, K.A., 2017. Monitoring What Matters: A
Systematic Process for Selecting Training-Load Measures. International journal of sports
physiology and performance. 12(Suppl 2). pp.S2-101.
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Zieger, E. and Schubert, M., 2017. Chapter One-New Insights Into the Roles of Retinoic Acid
Signaling in Nervous System Development and the Establishment of Neurotransmitter
Systems. International Review of Cell and Molecular Biology. 330. pp.1-84.
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