Ethical Considerations in Technology

This assignment delves into the complex ethical considerations raised by Apple's refusal to unlock an iPhone used in a criminal investigation. It examines various ethical theories, including utilitarianism and virtue ethics, to analyze the competing values of privacy, security, and justice. The assignment encourages students to critically evaluate the arguments presented by both sides of the debate and develop their own informed position on this contentious issue.

Running head: MANAGEMENT THEORY AND PRACTICE
Management Theory and Practice
Nam e of the Student:
Name of the University:
Author Note:

1MANAGEMENT THEORY AND PRACTICE
Introduction:
The essay aims an identification of ethical dilemma of Apple that has kept it the news
for the past few years. Ethical dilemma also termed as moral dilemmas refers to situations
where a choice is made between two options where neither possesses the power in resolving
the situation to find acceptance ethically. In February 2016, the chief executive of Apple Tim
Cook took stand for a matter that called for massive public debate (Lee, 2016). However, the
debate around the flagship product of Apple that is the iPhone, swayed in either side of fence.
On one hand, the Apple along with its digital rights groups ensures advocating protection of
digital privacy of the customers while on the other hand the Federal Bureau of
Investigation(FBI) and US government seeks support from the company in ensuring
protection to national security. Specifically the FBI and US government demanded and
sought help from Apple in unlocking the iPhone of terrorist who was involved in a terror
attack in San Bernardino, California. The investigation department recovered the phone from
a slain terrorist and its unlocking would provide visual insights not only into the motives of
attack but ensure crucial evidences regarding terrorist activities and networks. The FBI asked
Apple for building a backdoor for decoding the iPhone thereby implying a newer version of
operation system software of iPhone. This meant to help the agents of FBI in getting access
to information and unlocking the phone. The CEO of Apple however refused, as it questioned
the company’s policy in protecting digital security and privacy. The essay also highlights
managerial ethics and its influences on the managerial practice of Apple.
Discussion:
In the year, 2015 on December 2, there was a terror attack that took place at Inland
Regional Centre in San Bernardino, California that killed that injured 22 and killed 14 people
(Nagourey, Lovett & Perezpena, 2015). The FBI had evidence of the fact that attack was a
result of extensive planning and considered it as an act of terrorism. The primary focus of the

2MANAGEMENT THEORY AND PRACTICE
investigation centred on checking the terrorist travel, phone, computer and other records for
ascertaining the motive of the attack but all went in vain, as most of the evidences were
destroyed. However, the only evidence that the FBI agents could find was an iPhone. The
investigators feared that an attempt in unlocking the phone would completely erase stored
data. This is when FBI sought the assistance of Apple for advice on the best available
investigative option without destroying the evidence. In addition, the investigative agency
also wanted the company to move a step further in helping them unlock the encrypted iPhone
used by the slain terrorist. In other words, FBI wanted the company to build a backdoor to the
iPhone. The government’s stance also supported FBI and passed an order that directed Apple
for providing technical assistance that was reasonable. Apple however refused as they
considered it as moral dilemma and against the policies of the company (Cushman,
Sheketoff, Wharton & Carey, 2013).
Policies related to customer privacy of Apple driven by chief executive officer Tim
Cook who joined the company in the year 1998 and evolved as one of the most outspoken
executives of the recent times (Kane, 2015). Under his leadership, the working conditions of
the factory workers and the suppliers improved that also signified the prevalence of new
culture of openness in the company. Apple also undertook certain environmental initiatives
criticized by the investors. Tim Cook also stressed on the importance of cultural fit that made
him fire a senior team member who was not a suitable fit for the culture of the company. The
company under Cook became more transparent and open. Although he was not able to create
the magic of Steve Jobs, but Apple undertook continuous innovation. Apple however
responded to the order of the federal court and FBI as it portrayed a breach of privacy that
undermined the liberty and freedom that the government seeks to protect (Sircar, 2017).
Apple considered the decision of a backdoor to iPhone as something that was too
dangerous for creation (Peregrina, 2016). The CEO also stressed on the fact that the software

3MANAGEMENT THEORY AND PRACTICE
that FBI asked it to create would possess the potential for unlocking any iPhone under the
possession of anyone. Apple also mentioned that there was no guarantee provided on limiting
the usage of backdoor to a particular case. Apple feared that once created the application of
the technique could be for unlocking innumerable devices. Moreover, the company also
believed that the creation of backdoor would defeat the very purpose of company in
encryption. They believed that once the information for encrypting data got revealed it could
be adopted by anyone. Tim Cook also added that the company has worked harder in keeping
away customer data even from the company’s reach as a part of their policy. However, the
ethical dilemma company faces lies in the fact that the government asked the company to
hack its users that undermined security advancements that company followed in protecting its
customers from cybercriminals and sophisticated hackers. The same engineers responsible for
building stronger encryption in iPhone for user protection ordered to weaken them and make
the iPhone less safe to the users (Mylan, 2017).
The management team of Apple and Cook characterized the dilemma as the problem
of dirty hands that referred to the condition of making harder moral choices that involved
dilemmas of right versus right faced by the management. The moral dilemmas of the
management represent the clashes amongst the conflicting and different moralities amongst
the different spheres of responsibilities (Bay, 2017).
Ethics refers to code of principles and moral values that ensures governing the
behaviour of person or group with respect to what is wrong and right (Goetsch & Davis,
2014). Ethics helps in setting the standard in determining what is correct or wrong in the
process of decision-making and conduct. Ethics refers to the internal values that are part of
corporate culture and decisions and concerned with social responsibility in terms of the
external environment. Thus, presence of ethical issue is evident in situations when the actions
of the organization or person are responsible for benefiting or harming others. Though the

4MANAGEMENT THEORY AND PRACTICE
domain does not have any specific law but there exists standards of conduct determined based
on values and shared principles regarding the moral conduct that guides a company or an
individual. Three major levels of ethical or moral judgement that characterizes managers.
This includes immoral management, moral management and amoral management (Christen,
Van Schaik, Fischer, Huppenbauer & Tanner, 2016). Immoral management refers to the
lack of ethical principles and is opposes to the ethical behaviour. This perspective
characterized by exclusive or principal concern for the gains of the company, emphasizing on
the profits and the success if the company at any price, on the lack of concern on the fair
treatment about the desires of others and willingness in cutting corners (Weiss, 2014). Moral
management on the other strives in following percept and ethical principle. While the moral
managers desires in succeeding they prefer doing it within the parameters of ethical standards
and the ideals of justice, fairness and the due process (Egan, 2013). Thus, the moral managers
look forward in pursuing business objectives that involves profit making along with
engagement in ethical and legal behaviours. The amoral management approach is neither
moral nor immoral and is oblivious to the any kind of ethical considerations (Greenbaum,
Quade & Bonner, 2015). There are two types of moral management, intentional and
unintentional.
When managers accused of cheating, lying or stealing the blame transferred to the
individual or the situation of the company. It is however, the belief of most people that
individuals based on their individual integrity make ethical choices that is partly true.
Business practices of ethical or unethical standards helps in reflecting attitudes, values,
beliefs and the behavioural patterns of organizational culture (Moore, 2013). Thus, ethics
defines more of a personal issue than an organizational issue. Managers ensure specific
behavioural and personality traits to a job. The value system of the manager is determined by
influence of the family, religious background and personal needs that helps in shaping the

5MANAGEMENT THEORY AND PRACTICE
value system of the manager. The personality characteristics such as self-confidence, ego
strength and a sense of independence help managers in undertaking decisions ethically. Moral
development is an important personal trait of the manager (Schwartz, 2016).
Most managers acts based on their interest rather than the duties towards other
stakeholders and employees. In the domain representing free choice, obedience is an aspect
that remains strictly to one self. Thus, domain of ethical behaviour obedience refers to the
standards and unenforceable norms that the company or individual is aware. Decisions that
are ethically acceptable is morally and legally acceptable to the larger community (Hoffman,
Frederick & Schwartz, 2014). Most companies and individuals get in trouble with the
simplified view that free choices leads them to mistakenly assume that it is not illegal but
ethical to not have a third domain. Therefore, good options lie in recognizing the ethics
domain and accept the moral values as a powerful force that helps in regulating behaviour not
only outside but also inside corporations. With the wider recognition of the social
responsibility and ethics principles, companies can use the ethics code in corporate cultures
for governing the behaviour thereby eliminating the need of additional laws along with
avoidance of problems. Deregulation of industry lead to the increase in unethical behaviour
and has removed laws (Crane & Matten, 2016).
As there is no codification of ethical standards, so dilemmas and disagreements
regarding proper behaviour often take place. Ethics always determines the power of decision-
making but some issue are difficult in resolving (Iphofen, 2016). Ethical dilemma arises in a
situation that concerns right or wrong and the values remain in conflict. In case of an ethical
dilemma, there arises difficulty in clearly identifying the right and the wrong. This is quite
clearly the case of ethical dilemma faced by Apple when forced to incorporate a backdoor
policy for unlocking the iPhone by the government and the FBI.

6MANAGEMENT THEORY AND PRACTICE
Most of ethical dilemmas involve conflicts between needs of whole and the part that
implies conflict between organization and individual or organization versus the society as a
whole (Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2016). In this context, the CEO of Apple is in an ethical
dilemma to encrypt the privacy of the users under pressure from FBI or the government when
the company works hard to ensure the privacy of the users. Ethical decisions lead to a
conflict between the two groups. In this regard, the Apple’s decision of sticking to its ethics
and not implement a backdoor for encrypting iPhone has led to a war with the US
government.
Managers with such strong ethical choices benefits from the normative strategy. The
first is based on the norms and the other based on values for guiding the process of decision-
making. Normative ethics makes use of several approaches using which Apple can apply in
their managerial practice for guiding the process of ethical decision-making. This includes:
The Utilitarian Approach put forward by the philosophers of the nineteenth century.
According to this approach, the decision maker considers the impact of every alternative
decision on all the parties that leads to the selection of one that optimizes that satisfies the
greatest number of people (Rachels & Rachels, 2015). Since the actual computations involves
complexities therefore simplifying them considered appropriate. Therefore, the decision
taken should only consider people who directly get affected by the decision instead of
considering the people effected indirectly. The citation of Utilitarian ethic based on the recent
trend amongst the companies for policing the personal habits if the employees with and after
work hours since they tend to influence the entire workplace. However, there is argument put
forward by some of the companies that monitoring imposed on the internet viewership of the
employees for maintaining workplace productivity and ethical climate.

7MANAGEMENT THEORY AND PRACTICE
The Individualism Approach considers acts to be moral when they are able to
promote the best long-term interest of the individuals. In this approach, the self-direction of
the individuals is paramount and the external force that restricts the self-direction is limited
severely. According to individual calculation, the advantage of long-term decision is
determined by its goodness (McPherson, 2013). The action intended for producing greater
ratio of bad or good for individuals compared to other alternatives determines the right
choice. Everyone’s persuasion of self-direction leads to betterment since people learn in
accommodating with each other based on the interest they possess for a long term. Thus,
individualism leads to integrity and honesty since they work best in the end. Cheating and
lying for attaining immediate self-interest causes business associates in lying and cheating in
turn. Therefore, individualism finally leads to behaviour towards the others that fits the
standard of behaviour that people wants towards them. The worth of understanding the
approach lays in recognizing short-term variations if at all they are proposed. Although
people might put forward arguments for the short term, self-interest based on individualism
helps in missing the point as individualism is misinterpreted easily for supporting the
immediate self-attainment. This is quite unpopular in group oriented and highly organized
societies of the present day.
On the other hand, the Moral Rights Approach puts forward that human beings
possess the liberties and fundamental rights that is not possible to be taken away by the
decision of any individual. Therefore, a decision is meant to be ethically correct that helps in
maintaining the rights of the people impacted by it (Shaw & Barry, 2015). Thus there are six
moral rights that needs consideration while the process of decision making. The first
represents the right for free consent where treatment of individuals takes place with their
consent. The second shows right to privacy where individuals have the choice of doing things
away from their work life and thereby have necessary control over the information of their

8MANAGEMENT THEORY AND PRACTICE
private life. The third represents the right of freedom of conscience where individuals refrain
from carrying any order that leads to the violation of their religious or moral norms. The
fourth represents the right for free speech where individuals possess the power of truthfully
criticizing the legality or ethics relating to others actions. The fifth represents the right to the
due process where individual possess the right for a fair treatment and impartial hearing. The
sixth represents the right to life and safety where individuals possess the right of living
without any violation or endangerment of safety and health.
Thus, for making ethical decision it is necessary for the managers to avoid
interference with fundamental rights of the others. The right of free speech would helps in
supporting the whistle blowers who is responsible for taking inappropriate or illegal actions
within the company.
The Justice Approach represents those decisions taken morally and based on
impartiality, fairness and equity. Three types of Justice exist for the managers to be
concerned about. This includes compensatory justice, procedural justice and distributive
justice. Distributive justice ensures difference in treatment of the people should not depend
on the arbitrary characteristics (Crawshaw, Cropanzano, Bell & Nadisic, 2013). Hence,
individuals possessing similarities in respect to a particular decision should have similar
treatments. Therefore, women and men should receive same salaries if both perform well in
the similar job. However, people who differ in a substantial manner in terms of
responsibilities or job skills should have different treatment in accordance with the difference
in responsibilities or skills amongst them. This difference must possess clear relationship
with the organizational tasks and goals. Procedural justice refers to fair administration of
rules. Therefore, statement of rules should be clear and impartial before being consistently
enforced. Compensatory justice puts forward that individuals should receive compensation
for their injuries by responsible parties. Further, individuals should not hold responsibility for

9MANAGEMENT THEORY AND PRACTICE
matters that are without their control. Justice Approach is closer to the thinking that
underlines the domain of codified law and it assumes that justice is only applicable through
regulations and rules. According to this approach managers defines attributes based on which
different treatment for employees are acceptable. This approach helps in justifying the efforts
of ethical behaviour in correcting past wrong doings and playing fair under the rules. Thus,
most laws guiding the human resource management depends on justice approach.
Ethical leaders have remarkable impact on the behaviour of the people in an
organization and their achievement. Effective leaders help in focusing and exemplifying to
the people that they exist whenever they are required (Brown & Treviño, 2014). Once the
leaders of the company is on board there arises the necessity of instilling such commitment
towards the organization. This might seem to be quite a daunting task at the beginning.
Employees also behave in an ethical fashion when informed about required ethical behaviour.
This is described in an unambiguous manner that is modelled in a consistent manner at each
level of the organization. Thus, ethical leadership refers to the act of consistently acting in a
way that helps in earning the trust from the team and helps in empowering the employees in
doing their best. Ethical behaviour of leaders also helps in building a community that values
encouragement, support and fairness that also helps in winning the trust of the clients.
Therefore, the consistent commitment to ethics is not an easy task. However, leaders must
adopt some practical ways of integrating their ethical conduct into their management styles
and organizations.
Conclusion
The report ends by throwing a light on the ethical dilemma of Apple, concepts of
managerial ethics and their influence on the managerial practices of Apple. The discussion
now proceeds with how the leaders can ensure ethical decisions in Apple. This is only

10MANAGEMENT THEORY AND PRACTICE
possible if the leaders adhered to the higher ethical standards and consistently undertakes
decisions that treat everyone with authenticity and respect. Apple must speak out honestly
regarding its difficult ethical choices made. The leaders should also be able to openly discuss
about the ethically grey areas and acknowledge about the complexity of the work life. The
company should follow one on one meetings and an open door policy that will help in
valuing the suggestions of the employees. This will also help in building if trust and help in
cultivating a respectable ambience where people can talk about ethics. In addition, the leaders
of the organization should establish a formal value or ethics statement. Further, the leaders
should encourage recognition and ensure rewards for ethical behaviour. Lastly, the leaders of
the company should speak about ethics as an ongoing journey of learning.

11MANAGEMENT THEORY AND PRACTICE
References:
Bay, M. (2017). The ethics of unbreakable encryption: Rawlsian privacy and the San
Bernardino iPhone. First Monday, 22(2). doi.org/10.5210/fm.v22i2.7006
Brown, M. E., & Treviño, L. K. (2014). Do role models matter? An investigation of role
modeling as an antecedent of perceived ethical leadership. Journal of Business
Ethics, 122(4), 587-598. doi.org/10.1007/s10551-013-1769-0
Christen, M., Van Schaik, C., Fischer, J., Huppenbauer, M., & Tanner, C. (2016). Empirically
Informed Ethics: Morality Between Facts and Norms. Springer.
Crane, A., & Matten, D. (2016). Business ethics: Managing corporate citizenship and
sustainability in the age of globalization. Oxford University Press.
Crawshaw, J. R., Cropanzano, R., Bell, C. M., & Nadisic, T. (2013). Organizational justice:
New insights from behavioural ethics. Human relations, 66(7), 885-904.
doi/abs/10.1177/0018726713485609
Cushman, F., Sheketoff, R., Wharton, S. & Carey, S., (2013). The development of intent-
based moral judgment. Cognition, 127(1), pp.6-21.
doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2012.11.008
Egan, G. (2013). The skilled helper: A problem-management and opportunity-development
approach to helping. Cengage Learning.
Goetsch, D. L., & Davis, S. B. (2014). Quality management for organizational excellence.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: pearson.
Greenbaum, R. L., Quade, M. J., & Bonner, J. (2015). Why do leaders practice amoral
management? A conceptual investigation of the impediments to ethical

12MANAGEMENT THEORY AND PRACTICE
leadership. Organizational Psychology Review, 5(1), 26-49.
doi/abs/10.1177/2041386614533587
Hoffman, W. M., Frederick, R. E., & Schwartz, M. S. (Eds.). (2014). Business ethics:
Readings and cases in corporate morality. John Wiley & Sons.
Iphofen, R. (2016). Ethical decision making in social research: A practical guide. Springer.
Kane, Y. I. (2015). Haunted Empire: Apple After Steve Jobs. Harper Business.
Lee, D. (2016). Apple v the FBI - in plain English. BBC News. Retrieved 18 January 2018,
from http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-35601035
McPherson, D. (2013). Vocational virtue ethics: Prospects for a virtue ethic approach to
business. Journal of business ethics, 116(2), 283-296. doi.org/10.1007/s10551-012-
1463-7
Moore, G. (2013). Re-imagining the morality of management: A modern virtue ethics
approach. In The heart of the good institution (pp. 7-34). Springer, Dordrecht.
Mylan Traylor, J. (2017). Shedding Light On The" Going Dark" Problem And The
Encryption Debate. University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform, 50(2).
Nagourey, A., Lovett, I., & Perezpena, R. (2015). San Bernardino Shooting Kills at Least 14;
Two Suspects Are Dead. Nytimes.com. Retrieved 2 January 2018, from
https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/03/us/san-bernardino-shooting.html
Peregrina, J. (2016). The Backdoor to the Digital Realm.
Rachels, J., & Rachels, S. (2015). The utilitarian approach. The elements of moral
philosophy. 8th ed. Boston: McGraw Hill Education.

13MANAGEMENT THEORY AND PRACTICE
Schwartz, M. S. (2016). Ethical decision-making theory: An integrated approach. Journal of
Business Ethics, 139(4), 755-776.
Shapiro, J. P., & Stefkovich, J. A. (2016). Ethical leadership and decision making in
education: Applying theoretical perspectives to complex dilemmas. Routledge.
Shaw, W. H., & Barry, V. (2015). Moral issues in business. Cengage Learning.
Sircar, S. (2017). The Crypto Wars: Interpreting the Privacy Versus National Security
Debate from a Standards Perspective. Georgetown University.
Weiss, J. W. (2014). Business ethics: A stakeholder and issues management approach.
Berrett-Koehler Publishers.