Physiological Principles in Health and Social Care

Running head: PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES IN HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE
PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES IN HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE
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1PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES IN HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE
Task 1
Main Anatomical Features (Check Appendix for Diagrams)
Skeletal System
The skeletal system of the human body, adds structural integrity, strength and assistance
in the overall survival of the organism. The skeletal system is comprised of a total of 206 bones
in a typical adult. The skeletal system provides support to the entire body by providing a base for
attachment of connective tissues such as cartilages, ligaments, tendons, as well as the muscular
tissues (Sheehan et al. 2018).
Principles of Joints
An articulation or a joint implies a section where two or more bones connect. The
primary function of joints lie in their assistance of stability and movement. A major anatomical
example where joints ensure stability is in their maintenance of integrity and interconnectedness
of the minor bones in the skull. The movements in our limbs is an additional function of joints.
The structural principles by which joints can be classified include cartilaginous, fibrous and
synovial joints whereas the functional principles of joints can be classified under the terms of
diarthoses, ampithiarthroses and syanartrhoses. (Cohen 2018). Of these, synovial joints allow for
a wide range of movements due to the fluidity and lubrication initiated by the synovial fluid
present in the cavities between these joints. Hence, a variety of specialized movements in
angular, rotational as well as gliding in nature are enabled by the synovial fluid (Seror et al.
2015). Age associated pathologies are often accompanied with increased inflammatory processes
which may result in loss of synovial fluid and hindered joint movement resulting in joint

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stiffness and loss of flexibility. For this reason, aged care procedures must incorporate joint care
considering the essential movements facilitated by the same (Van der Kraan 2017).
Support
One of the primary functions of the skeletal system lies in its provision of support,
structure and integrity, without which, the human body would be reduced to a mere mass of
tissues, organs and skin. The skeletal system form protective cages for our vital organs and
hence, hindrance to this system increases the probability of injury and damage to our visceral
tissues (Su et al. 2018).
Blood Cell Functions
An additional function of the skeletal system is its maintenance of the blood volumes and
blood cell counts of the entire body. Bone tissues encompass bone marrow whose essential
function lies in the formation of blood cells. While the age associated losses in bone tissues and
calcium reservoirs may lead to a reduction of bone marrow and the resultant blood volume of an
individual, the human body compensates for the same through maintenance of adequate stem cell
proliferation and maturation rates, followed by increase in erythropoietin amounts (Suchacki,
Cawthorn and Rosen 2016). Despite these attempts at normalcy, ageing associated increased
susceptibility to chronic infections may result in compromised bone marrow functioning
resulting in external blood transfusions or other clinical interventions to restore vital blood levels
and the associated oxygen transport in an aged individual (El-Jawhari et al. 2017).
Calcium Reservoir
Bones are the primary reservoir of key mineral deposits such as calcium and
phosphorous, due to bone modeling and resorption process initiated by osteoblasts and

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osteoclasts. The equilibrium of trabecular calcium deposits along with the serum calcium content
is achieved through these bone remodeling processes, initiated by the parathyroid hormones
(Algate et al. 2016). However, ageing exerts disruption of this equilibrium resulting in greater
resorption as compared to modeling resulting in loss of bone mass, bone density, bone strength
and flexibility further increasing the susceptibility of loss of balance, falls and fractures in aged
individuals which must be considered by geriatric health professionals using falls prevention
precautionary procedures (Bartl and Bartl 2017).
Essential Bone Groups
While numerous bones drive the basic human functioning, the following groups of bone
are vital to life (Stathopoulos et al. 2016):
 Spinal and hip bones are composed of a group of minor bones known as the sacrum
 Essential bone groups comprising the limbs include the patella, femur, phalanges, tarsal
and metatarsal.
 Bones outlining the shoulders and torso, include sternum, calvicle, scapula and ribs.
 Bones in the skull, that is the cranium and the mandible are required for enclosing soft
tissues such as the brain and neurons.
Muscular System: Contractility
The muscular system promotes movement and postural freedom to the human body
through contractions and relaxations initiated by muscle fibers with supplementation from the
nervous system, performed by neurotransmitters at the axon terminals. The processes of blood
circulation are also facilitated by the muscular system. Muscular fibers are categorized into the
groups of cardiac, smooth and skeletal types. Cardiac muscles aid in the circulatory activities of

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the heart throughput life. Smooth muscles outline involuntary visceral functioning, facilitated by
the autonomous nervous system. Skeletal muscles aid in the voluntary movement of limbs and
joints and are within our control (Nagy et al. 2019). Ageing is often accompanied by a loss in
muscle fibers and associated flexibility and hence aged care must provide supplementary
procedures to restore such vital processes (Strasser et al. 2018).
Structural function of Ligaments and Tendons
Connective tissues such as ligaments and tendons provide stability and structure to the
human body. Ligaments stabilize bones by forming fibrous connections between bones,
especially in joints. A tendon initiates movement by forming attachments between muscles and
bones or muscles and organs, such as the eye ball (Padulo et al. 2016).
Nervous System: Conductivity
The nervous system is the primary harbinger of human actions through the transmission
of nerve impulses, initiated by neurotransmitters through the entire body. Essential receptors and
neuron bundles allow us to perceive our world through sensory organs and react to our
surroundings by motor movements of our limbs as a response to stimuli. The central nervous
system (CNS) comprise of nerve regulatory organs such as the brain and the spinal cord, whereas
the peripheral nervous system (PNS) form interconnections between the CNS and organs through
various nerve extensions and bundles. The autonomous nervous system (ANS) facilitates
survival, flight or fight based responses based on the prevalence of danger in our surrounding
(Louveau et al. 2015). A key physiological effect of ageing lies in the loss of neurocognitive
functioning resulting in degenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s, dementia and Parkinson’s
(Verkhratsky et al. 2016).

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Epithelial Tissues: Secretory and Absorptive
Epithelial tissues form the lining of inner organ cavities, glands as well as outer surfaces
and are characterized by functions such as absorption of essential substances, provision of
protection and the reception of stimuli present in our surroundings. Considering these functions,
epithelia in the human body are concentrated across renal, cardiac, pulmonary, hepatic,
reproductive, circular, endothelial, lymph, dermal and oral tissues and cavities (Begnaud et al.
2016).
Functioning of Body Systems
Cardiovascular
The cardiovascular system is comprised of primary organ structures such as the heart,
along with blood vessels such as arteries and veins, arterioles and venioles and lymphatic
vessels. The cardiovascular and circular system is essential to maintain life by enabling
circulation of blood, oxygen and essential nutrients across the body. Malfunctioning in the
cardiovascular system due to ageing can lead to reduced cardiac output, increased endothelial
fibrousity and adiposity and fluctuations in blood pressure (Lavie et al. 2015).
Respiratory
The respiratory system is comprised of structures such as lungs, the pleural cavity,
bronchioles and cilia. Alveolar sacs outlining the lungs aid in the exchange of essential oxygen
and wastes such as carbon dioxide. Cilia aid in dust entrapment and moistening of the inhaled
air. Respiratory malfunctioning due to ageing can result in chest tightening, breathlessness and
reduced gas exchange (Moschos, Usher and Lindsay 2017).

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Digestive
The digestive system comprises of all the essential organs stretching from the mouth to
the anus, such as the esophagus, stomach, liver, gall bladder, pancreas and intestines. The
digestive system is responsible for the ingestion, absorption and metabolism of essential macro
and micro nutrients and hence, deficits in ageing pertaining to compromised gastric juice
production and abdominal distensions results in increased digestive disorders, nutrient mal-
absorption and deficiencies in the aged individual (Rehfeld, Nylander and Karnov 2017).
Excretory
The excretory system comprises of structures such as kidneys, urethra, nephrons and
bladder and are responsible for the filtration of blood and removal of wastes (Cullen-McEwen,
Sutherland and Black 2016).
Locomotor
Muscles, bones, ligaments and tendons aid in the movement and locomotion of the
individual through coordinated activities with the nervous system (Song et al. 2016).
Integumentary
The integumentary system consists of the largest organ of the human body, that is our
skin, which aids in protection from damage, sensory perception, absorption of substances and
excretion in the form of sweating. The skin is also essential in the regulation of body
temperature, fluid balance and sebum levels (Pang, Schiefer and Beasley 2017).

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Sensory
The sensory system aids us in the perception of our surroundings through sensory organs
such as the eyes, nose, ears, skin and tongue by serving as key receptors of a number of nerve
endings (Dey et al. 2015).
Reproductive
The reproductive system aids in the proliferation of life and initiation of growth and
developmental through hormonal and pubertal changes using structures such as the ovaries and
testes (Maggi et al. 2016).
Metabolism
The body’s metabolic processes comprises of processes which convert or metabolize
food components into energy. Anabolic processes aid in muscle growth and development
whereas the catabolic processes initiate muscle breakdown and wear and tear. The body’s
metabolism is facilitated through food consumption, physical exercise and processes such as
digestion and respiration. Physical activities such as exercise enhance energy metabolism.
However, with age, loss of muscle mass and increase in inflammatory processes result in reduced
metabolism, increased catabolism and the resultant loss in muscle mass and fatigue in aged
individuals (Guan et al. 2018).
Growth
Growth of the human body is initiated by the growth hormone or somatotropin which is
released by the pituary gland, through the regeneration and proliferation of cells. However,
malfunctioning of the growth hormone, fueled by oxidative stress and inflammatory processes