Research Methods: Types, Traditions, Validity and Reliability

This article provides an overview of research methods including primary and secondary research, main types of research, research style, research traditions, validity, and reliability. It also discusses the importance of a conclusion, literature review, and ethical considerations in research.

Running head: RESEARCH METHODS
Research Methods
Name of Student
Name of University
Author Note

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Table of Contents
Introduction................................................................................................................................2
Primary research and secondary research..................................................................................3
Main types of research...............................................................................................................4
Research style.............................................................................................................................6
Research traditions.....................................................................................................................7
Validity, reliability.....................................................................................................................8
Quantitative research..................................................................................................................9
Quantitative methods...............................................................................................................11
Qualitative research..................................................................................................................12
Qualitative methods.................................................................................................................13
Analysing quantitative data......................................................................................................15
Analysing qualitative data........................................................................................................15
Importance of a conclusion......................................................................................................16
Importance of a literature review, sources of information and the value of a
bibliography/references............................................................................................................17
Ethical considerations..............................................................................................................19
Conclusion................................................................................................................................20
Reference..................................................................................................................................21

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Introduction
In the words of Brannen (2017, p.37), research is a systematic investigation into a
study. Various materials are studied to identify the significance of a certain method or theory
so that facts can be established. At the same time, Bryman (2017, p.57) stated that research
helps in reaching new conclusions that are essential for the method to be successful and
accepted in the society. The systematic investigation of information provides an idea about
the manner in which a particular project is carried on. Apart from these McCusker and
Gunaydin (2015, p.537) is of the opinion that research coordinates systematic investigation
with that of creativity so that the stock of knowledge can increase and improve.
One of the significance of conducting a research is that it can be done on various
topics. Topics related to management, human beings, cultural aspects and society could be
conducted with the help of significant research. Barnham (2015, p.837) is of the opinion that
one of the main characteristics of conducting a research is that it assists in confirming facts as
well as reaffirm the results of works done previously. At the same time new or existing
problems are solved that help in providing an idea about the topic at hand and provide new
conclusions so that theoretical developments can take place. Another important aspect that
has been pointed out by Hartas (2015, p.55) is that research can be considered as an
expansion of past work in any field.
Past work undertaken in the tourism and aviation industries can be related with the
present conditions of the industry to understand the importance as well as analyse the gap that
exists in the research. This assignment provides ideas about the types of research that can be
used to derive conclusion and provides critical analysis about the advantages and
disadvantages that exist while choosing these research types. At the same time ethical

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considerations that is needed to be taken for the success of a research project aim be analysed
and the importance of it is stated.
Primary research and secondary research
According to Choy (2014, p.99), research consists of two types that hold the utmost
significance while analysing a particular topic or trying to draw a conclusion. The research
includes primary and secondary research. The difference and the meaning of the two types of
research are provided:
Primary research
Hoy and Adams (2015, p.67) defined primary research as a factual with the ability to
provide firsthand information about a study that is written by a person. However, one of the
significance of primary data is that the research varies depending upon the experiment or
study that is conducted. Most of the times, the application of a scientific method is done to
gain the desired conclusion and to come to a proper result. Neuman (2016, p.90) stated that
primary research can be accounted as a typical original research that provides raw materials
and results based on the experiences of the target audience. The fact that primary research
involves reaching the source directly plays a significant part in gaining the factual description
of research. Some of the examples of primary research include conducting interviews,
telephonic conversation, surveys, questionnaires, focus groups as well as visiting the location
of the target audience.
Secondary research
Secondary research is based on the analysis and interpretation of primary research.
Noble and Smith (2015, p.456) stated that the collection of relevant primary research and
interpreting it in own words is considered as secondary research. It typically involves

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collection of sources of information from various books, journals and websites. Hammersley
(2017, p.39) pointed out that one of the advantages of secondary research is that it compares
more than two primary data and helps in understanding a general idea about a research. For
example, in the case of primary data collected to understand the growth of tourism and
aviation industries, the application of secondary data can help in pointing out the difference
that exists in the collection and results of the primary data. Norris et al. (2015, p.470) pointed
out that unlike primary data secondary data can be difficult to gain, as most of the sources
from which it is obtained are restricted for purposes that pertain to safety and risk protocol.
Secondary research can be more suitable for the research.
Main types of research
According to Landrum and Garza (2015, p.199), the main types of research include
pure research and applied research. Pure research is defined as a type of research that is
conducted out of curiosity. It helps in creating innovative ideas and formulates algorithm that
can be applied later during the course of the research. One the other hand, Heale and
Twycross (2015, p.2015) is of the opinion that applied research helps in the application of the
pure research. It helps in the application of sensitivity analysis by using multi-linear
mathematical programme so that derivative parameters can be developed. A broader
differentiation of the two types of research can be provided that can help in understanding its
application in a research field.
Comparison basis Pure research Applied research
Definition Pure research refers to a
study that is aimed at the
expansion of existing base of
knowledge so that scientific
Applied research is designed
to solve specific practical
problem or provide answers
to questions that require the

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method can be applied in any
field of research
application of mathematical
calculations and apply
derivatives.
Characteristic The pure research is based on
the theoretical research. The
manner in which the pure
research is conducted
indicates that knowledge
about various things are
derived from the analysis of
books and journals
The applied research is more
practical in nature. The
application of the responses
of the target audience or
gaining first hand
information about an
experience is considered as a
method of applied research
Utility The utility of pure research is
universal as various sources
of information from different
scholars are taken into
account
The utility of the applied
research is only limited as a
small size needs to be
considered in order to get the
outcome of desired results
Application of the research It helps in the development
of scientific knowledge and
make predictions for the
future
It assists in the development
of techniques and
technologies
Aim The aim is to add knowledge
to the already existing
theories
The aim is to provide and
find out solutions at hand
Table: Difference between pure and applied research
(Source: Brannen 2017, p.46)

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Brannen (2017, p.46) even quoted that “the application of applied research can help in
gaining authentic research topic and solutions”.
Research style
The research style includes three main broad types. According to Leung (2015,
p.324), the research style consists of survey method, experimental method and ethnographic
method. A broader difference and definition of the three styles of research is provided that
can help in gaining an idea.
Survey method
As stated by Antwi and Hamza (2015, p.217) the survey method involves collection
of data from a large population. This involves the application of structured interviews as well
as the application of questionnaire method. Henwood (2014, p.1611) stated that most of the
time, it involves the application of quantitative method with a pre-determined number of
answers that are easy to provide response. One of the advantages of the survey method is that
it is easier to gain responses from the method as the short questionnaires bring about interest
among the target audiences. The survey method is usually considered as the best method used
for research.
Experimental method
According to Bernard (2017, p.678), the experimental method involves the deliberate
testing of the hypothesis so that a proper conclusion can be reached. The application of the
experimental method provides a manipulation of one type of variable. Barczak (2015, p.658)
stated that the experimental method takes into account the occurrence and reaction of one
variable after the other or supporting variable is removed. The experimental method is

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conducted in a significant manner that starts with a hypothesis, tests the hypothesis, analyse
the data of the resultants and report the findings.
Ethnographic method
The term provides a significant link with the field of anthropology and requires a high
involvement in the setting of a research. As stated by Salazar, Crosby and DiClemente (2015,
p.778) the application of ethnographic method is done mainly on management research.
However, one of the disadvantages of the research is that it can be time consuming as it uses
qualitative method. The usefulness of the research can be felt while watching the interaction
between people so that the mental condition of the people can be understood and the
environment for the research can be made into positive.
Research traditions
According to Brown (2015, p.24), the research traditions defines the simplicity with
which a research is conducted and provides an understanding of the methods that are required
for the understanding and gaining of knowledge about important concepts. Research
traditions consist of two types of approaches that consist of the positivist approach and
phenomenologist approach. The application of these two types of research traditions are
described below.
Positivist approach
The theory of positivism is considered as an epistemological position that is
concerned with the methods of natural sciences and application of it in a research. Positivist
approach makes assumptions of things that are beyond the study of social reality. Facts are
applied in the study and the relationship between the facts is established as a means of
scientific law. As pointed out by Patten (2015, p.45) these laws possess a status of truth and

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social objects that help in determining the manner in which general elements can be applied
in the field of research. The choice of research rests on the notion of the things to study and
the things that are not to study. In the words of Morse (2016, p.33) positivist define the role
of researchers to be independent and help in reduction of problems in the simplest possible
manner. The positivist is the approach that is mostly used by the researchers.
Phenomenologist approach
As pointed by Cope (2014, p.45) the theory related to the phenomenologist approach
can be used in contrast to the positivist approach. The question of the manner in which
individuals make sense of the world around them is the main cause of concern for the
researchers undertaking the study. As pointed out by Glaser and Strauss (2017, p.778)
observation in the field of research is essential as it provides a deeper understanding of the
factors that exist in a particular topic. In this regard, an example can be given about the
current condition in the tourism and aviation industry. Observations between the growths of
the industry in the modern day can be related to the scientific growth of technology in the
modern world. Orcher (2016, p.67) pointed that the phenomenologist approach assists in
making differences between the matters related to social science and natural science and
questions the authority of the tasks undertaken by the researchers.
Validity, reliability
Validity
According to Stage and Manning (2015, p.565), validity is defined as an extent to
which a concept can be measured accurately. The validity is taken into consideration mainly
for conducting a quantitative study. An example can be stated in this regard, as a survey
deigned to explore the growth rate of the tourism and aviation industry. The consideration

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that is undertaken in this regard cannot be considered as valid until a second research is
conducted which defines the accuracy of the data and the results. Samii (2016, p.941) stated
that validity of tests is needed so that support can b provided to the reliability of the data that
is undertaken. In this regard, several types of validity is conducted that helps in analysing the
numbers and the data provided for measuring the resources. These types include face validity;
construct validity, formative validity and criterion-related validity. A stated by Norris, Ross
and Schoonen (2015, p.8) ways to improve validity can be based on the goals and objectives
set for conducting the research as well as measuring the goals and objectives so that tests can
be reviewed.
Reliability
Reliability is considered as a manner in which consistency of a test result is measured.
According to Nardi (2018, p.67), it can be considered as an assessment tool that can be used
to produce stable and consistent results that are in accordance with the rules of the researcher.
In this regard, several types of reliability tests can be maintained that can be used for the
obtaining the results necessary for conducting a stable and valid reliability test. O’brien et al.
(2014, p.1245) stated that the application of test-retest reliability could be made to understand
the scores that are obtained after careful calculation of more than one data. The stability of
the test over time is calculated so that parallels related to the administration of different
assessment tools can be understood. Bettany‐Saltikov and Whittaker (2014, p.1520) pointed
out that the reliability testing can be considered as a means to verify the validity of a research
in a way that it signifies the importance of a research and helps in gaining an inter reliable
factor necessary for conducting the research in a proper manner.

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Quantitative research
According to Mertens (2014, p.56), quantitative research is based on the objective,
facts, statistics and the application numerical data. An example of quantitative research is that
during calculation of the preferences of the tourism and the aviation industry, the responses
of the people are calculated using statistical methods and the application of mathematical
formulas such as regression, correlation and so on. In this regard, the advantages and
disadvantages of the application of quantitative research can be analysed so that its
applicability in the field of research can be understood. The advantages and disadvantages
include:
Advantages
As stated by Hanson and Mellinger (2016, p.554) quantitative data has several
advantages. One of the advantages among it is that it is easy to measure the results that are
obtained from the application of method is that objectives set can be applied. At the same
time, Richardson (2015, p.67) argues that the quantitative result is based mainly on the
observation of facts than the calculation of numerical data. At the same time, predictions are
based on the quantitative data due to the application of numerical basis. Abilities of
expansion of the quantitative data can be considered as a major advantage.
Disadvantages
At the same time, application of quantitative data can have certain disadvantages as
well. The fact that the research cannot be used to explain the social phenomenon can be
considered as a huge negative point. As stated by Hussein (2015, p.4) this is mainly because
in fields of sociology, the application of quantitative data cannot be made. With most
research covering aspects of the psychological needs and the social domain of human beings,
the application of quantitative data can be considered as a negative factor. At the same time,

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Sidel (2014, p.161) is of the opinion that quantitative data can provide information about the
things that are happening but cannot detail the reason for it.
Quantitative methods
As stated by Heale and Twycross (2015, p.2015) in order to continue with a
quantitative research technique it is necessary to identify the methods that are used for the
commencement of the research. Quantitative research is usually characterised by the
application of questionnaire methods. These questionnaires can be either open ended
questions, closed ended questions as well as mixed method. Each of the methods and its
significance can be analysed.
Open-ended questions
According to Hussein (2015, p.4), open-ended questions are the type of questions that
require more than a one word response. The responses provided need to be broader and
analyse the core importance of a topic. The responses provided can be either in the form of
paragraphs or in the form of lists. Some examples include:
 What is the most important factor that is needed to be considered by the tourism and
aviation industry?
 What recommendations can be made to improve the current situation of the industry?
Closed ended questions
The closed ended questions normally provide a one-word answer. These answers do
not provide an in-depth response and ensure that it is answered to the point without any
explanation about the reasons for choosing the answer. Qureshi (2017, p.101) stated that such
questions comprise of the survey method. Examples include:

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 Are you aware of new changes in the tourism and aviation industry?
 Are you satisfied with the services provided to you by the industry?
Mixed method
The mixed method consists of both the type of questionnaire. Single word answers
provide a scope of explaining the reasons for choice. As stated by Orcher (2016, p.67) the
broader questions are usually the follow up question to the single word response. Examples
include:
 What is your favourite tourism destination?
 Why would you like to use this particular tourism industry for support?
Qualitative research
According to Paquot and Plonsky (2017, p.61), qualitative research is a form of
exploratory research that is used to gain an understanding of the underlying and main reasons
for conducting a research. Qualitative research provides insights into the problems that exist
in a practical manner by assisting in the development of hypothesis as well as potential
quantitative research. Riff, Lacy and Fico (2014, p.46) stated that this form of research is
mainly based on the application of secondary sources of information. It also helps in
converting research problems into research questions so that analysis of the research can be
done in a proper manner. The advantages and disadvantages of qualitative research can be
analysed that can help in its application in the field of research.
Advantages
Qureshi (2017, p.101) is of the opinion that with the application of qualitative
research, subject materials or topics can be evaluated with detail. Antwi and Hamza (2015,
p.217) argued with the fact stating that qualitative method focuses less on the metric factors

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and implements the application of a more subtle approach for the development of a research
and information. The application of the model can provide data to be more enhanced and at
the same time ensure that opportunities are gained that help in the development of proper
evidence related to the topic. At the same time, the research evidence can be based on the
incoming or available data that is present.
Disadvantages
At the same time, Barczak (2015, p.658) stated that qualitative research has its
disadvantages as well. One such disadvantage is that qualitative research has is the fact that
the quality of the data can be extremely subjective. This implies the fact that theoretical
evidence exists rather than any practical evidence that it can be used for determining the
validity of a data. At the same time, Bettany‐Saltikov and Whittaker (2014, p.1520) stated
that the rigidity of the data is more difficult to assess and therefore, the demonstration of the
data due to its application can be difficult for the growth of a research topic. Hence,
researchers find it difficult to maintain the validity of the data collected.
Qualitative methods
Similar to the quantitative method, the qualitative research also follow certain
methods that are essential for the development of research. As stated by Richardson (2015,
p.67) the qualitative method usually consists of interviews and focus groups that need to be
considered so that researcher can gain a proper idea about the resources that they posses. A
broader description can be provided about the methods.
Unstructured interviews

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In an unstructured interview, interviewers ask questions that are not prepared in
advance. These questions rise spontaneously within the conversation that takes place between
an interviewer and interviewee.
Structured interview
A structured interview is considered as a type of interview in which an interviewer
prepares a particular set of questions and asks them. In structured interviews, questions are
planned and created in advance.
Semi-structured interview
In these types of interviews, the interviewer asks only a few predetermined questions.
The remaining questions those are not prepared in advance. The predetermined questions are
usually common for all candidates, whereas, the remaining questions are asked within the
free flowing conversation.
Focus group and interview
The focus group interview denotes a type of qualitative research method where in a
group of people are selected and asked about the opinion or perception about a particular
topic. As pointed out by Riff, Lacy and Fico (2014, p.46) the environment in a focus group is
interactive and participants are free to discuss the topic in any manner.
Points to consider while using qualitative methods
Some of the points that are needed to be considered while using the interview and
focus group method include understanding of the person that is being interviewed. It is
necessary that the industry or the company that the people are interviewed be carefully
researched so that questions can be asked based on the researched information. At the same

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time, it is also necessary that during focus groups, the groups be considered based on a
random scale so that neutrality of opinion can be maintained.
Analysing quantitative data
Quantitative data can be analysed by converting the data used that includes
understanding the categories as well as statistical data required for the commencement of
research. As stated by Paquot and Plonsky (2017, p.61) the quantitative data analysis consists
of information that can be obtained mostly by the survey method or by the interview method.
Hence, it is important to research the statistics that are involved with the obtaining of
information so that proper analysis of the data can be made. As stated by Salazar, Crosby and
DiClemente (2015, p.778) the categories that exist in the build up to the quantitative data can
be considered as one of the most important factors of research.
The statistical data that needs to be applied have to be done in a mathematical manner
so that validity of data can be presumed. In this regard, codes can be provided for the
calculation of data so that the results that are obtained can be identified easily and at the same
time ensures that reliability of the test subjects are guaranteed. Samii (2016, p.941) is of the
opinion that in order to identify the valid data point it is necessary that the quantitative
analysis method be made keeping in mind the factors that drive it.
Another important characteristic is that pattern and trends need to be taken into
consideration. This is important as the pattern can determine the results of the data and based
on it recommendations can be made for the research. Therefore, it can be said that the
analysis of the quantitative data can have a positive significance after considering the points
that are solely responsible for its success.

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Analysing qualitative data
The analysis of the qualitative data is based on the application of the interview
methods so that a proper idea can be gained about the importance of the method. This
includes understanding the manner in which reasons or causes of a particular attempt is being
made. As stated by Sidel (2014, p.161) it is necessary that the application of scientific method
is applied to analyse the cause and effects of a particular topic. Creation of segments needs to
be made so that proper interviews can be conducted by considering the mode of interview
such as structured, semi-structured or an unstructured interview.
Norris, Ross and Schoonen (2015, p.8) is of the opinion that in order to understand the
similarities and differences that exist in an interview, it is necessary that the qualitative
interview be created in a manner that can have a positive effect on the manner in which
segmentation can be created. The analysis of research in this regard can have a significant
impact on the development of a research so that a conclusion can be drawn based on the
analysis of the data. As stated by Hartas (2015, p.55) it is important that focus groups and
interviews be conducted based on the analysis of the topic of the research.
Hence, it can be said that it is important for researchers to continue with the
understanding of the factors that exist during conducting an interview. Henwood (2014,
p.161) is of the opinion that it is important for every researcher to understand the factors that
exist in the study of a research so that the desired results can be produced.
Importance of a conclusion
As stated by Mertens (2014, p.56) conclusion is an integral part of an essay as it helps
to summarise the contents of an essay and provides an analysis of all the important factors
that exist. The importance of a proper conclusion is that it can help in providing an idea about
the research and at the same time open up opportunities for future scope of research. Leung

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(2015, p.324) stated that a well-written conclusion helps the readers to understand the
concept of the study and provides them the knowledge that the research problem had actually
being addressed. Some of the aspects that are included in a conclusion include the
presentation of the last word on the issue that has been raised.
Norris et al. (2015, p.470) is of the opinion that no new information can be put
forward in a conclusion. Any new information may fail to intrigue the researcher about the
actual problem. Cope (2014, p.45) stated that conclusions can be considered as a final
impression of the research. It is opposite to the impression that an introduction provides
making it subtle and at the same time leaving a lasting impression about the key findings and
objectives of research. While trying to conclude about the study conducted on the tourism
and aviation department one of the important aspects that needs to be considered is the
manner in which summarising of thoughts and the responses of the survey questions are put
forward.
At the same time, Bernard (2017, p.678) stated that a conclusion also helps in
identifying the gap that exists in literature so that future research on the gap can be made. It
also sets up an opportunity to provide recommendations that are crucial for the development
of research. Conclusions can even provide a demonstration of ideas as it helps in
summarising the findings and provides knowledge based on its understanding of the factors.
Hence, it can be said that keeping in mind the required manner of writing a conclusion, the
research can be considered worthy of study. Choy (2014, p.99) stated that conclusions need
to be written by contextualising the research problem based on the results obtained from the
study.

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Importance of a literature review, sources of information and the value of a
bibliography/references
Literature review: According to Barnham (2015, p.837), literature review is
important for a research as it provides an in-depth knowledge of information to its readers.
One of the main importance’s of writing a literature review is that it helps in creating rapport
with the readers. As stated by Hammersley (2017, p.39) literature review provides an
overview of the work done and audiences get knowledge of the home work done by the
researcher. It provides theoretical and conceptual examples of the work undertaken by
previous scholars so that readers can have an idea about the main problem of the research and
the manner in which it can be solved. Linking the objectives of the research as well as setting
the questions for the completion of the research is done by the completion of a literature
review.
Sources of information: The importance of source of information is that it rings
about an authenticity to the research conducted. As stated by Hanson and Mellinger (2016,
p.554) sources of information need to be reliable so that it can underpin the validity of the
research that has been conducted. At the same time, Brannen (2017, p.37) stated that
information related issues could be solved if the source of information is reliable and strong.
Like a literature review, information creates a sense of rapport and trust with the readers.
Verification of the sources of information can be conducted easily and fake information can
result in the failure of research. At the same time, sources of information help in gaining an
access to the future possibilities that may arise in research.
Bibliography/Reference: According to Bryman (2017, p.57), references or a
bibliography are essential for a research project as it helps to judge the quality of the work
done by a researcher. Hence, it is necessary to use up to date resources so that validation of
the data can be maintained. Hoy and Adams (2015, p.67) pointed out the fact that references

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or a bibliography helps in pointing the facts that are necessary for conducting the research. It
can be considered as a method that provides credit to the authors responsible for various
sources of information. At the same time, the authentication of data is also ensured with the
application of references or a bibliography.
Ethical considerations
As stated by Brown (2015, 24) ethical considerations are important for the
development of research. Some of the ethical considerations that need to be taken include the
legal laws related to data protection. Under the Data Protection Act 1998, no data collected
for research purposes can be used in a manner that does not suit the application. O’brien et al.
(2014, p.1245) stated that disclaimer form related to the collection of data is required while
conducting interview or any sampling. At the same time, the data needs to be used only for
conducting the research without leaking any information in areas not involved with the
research.
Other ethical issues that need to be taken into consideration is the fact that data
collected needs to be kept confidential as well as anonymity of the data needs to be
maintained. The application of this can be done by producing a consent sheet form so that
validity of the research can be identified. The age group that is collected as a sample needs to
be provided with enough evidence about the validity of the data and the reason for selecting
them as part of the sampling process. As stated by Patten (2015, p.45) none of the people
participating in the survey can be forced to respond to the questionnaire. Neither the
responses can be manipulated for completing the research.
Another important aspect that needs to be considered is the fact that using online
questionnaire methods, it is essential that time needs to be provided for gaining responses.
The ethical considerations in this case need to be relied on the use of abbreviations and the

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time loop so that respondents can understand the questions set for them. Further research into
the topic of the research also needs to be made so that justification about the validity of the
research and its importance usage can be considered as examples.
Conclusion
I can conclude that in order to provide a proper research it is necessary to ensure that
appropriate research methodologies are used. The research methodologies highlight the
importance of the researches that are being conducted. The application of qualitative and
quantitative research techniques can help in identifying the type of research that needs to be
conducted while conducting a research. In the case of dissertations, the application of these
methods can have a huge impact on the quality of a research. I also believe that ethical
considerations are an important part of research as it helps in managing the respondents and
ensure that the research is conducted using a quality methods.

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