The Victimization of Lower Black Working-Class Men in Society

This research delves into the victimization experiences of lower-income Black working-class men, exploring forms of harassment, contributing factors, impacts on wellbeing, and policy recommendations. Through qualitative interviews and survey data, the study sheds light on the challenges faced by this marginalized group.

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The Victimization of Lower Black Working-Class Men in Society
By [Name]
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Professor’s Name:
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Date

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Table of Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................3
1.1 Background of the study........................................................................................................3
1.2 Significance of Study.............................................................................................................4
1.3 Research Aim.........................................................................................................................4
1.4 Research objectives................................................................................................................4
1.5 Research questions.................................................................................................................5
1.6 Hypotheses.............................................................................................................................6
1.7 Conceptual Framework..........................................................................................................7
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW...........................................................................................................8
2.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................8
2.2 Types of Victimization...........................................................................................................8
2.3 Principal Causes and facilitating Factors...............................................................................9
2.4 Cases, Legal Framework and Policies.................................................................................10
3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY............................................................................................12
3.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................12
3.2 Qualitative Method..............................................................................................................12
3.3 Quantitative Method............................................................................................................13
3.4 Sampling..............................................................................................................................13
3.5 Sample Size Calculation......................................................................................................13
3.6 Ethical Consideration...........................................................................................................14
4.0 RESULTS/FINDINGS.............................................................................................................15
4.1 Major Themes......................................................................................................................15
4.2 Relationship between the interview results and the research objectives..............................16
4.3 Survey Results......................................................................................................................19
5.0 DISCUSSION AND EVALUATION......................................................................................33
6.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION.......................................................................36
Bibliography..................................................................................................................................38

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
There has been an increased cases of victimization of Lower Black Working-Class Men in a
Society. Hence, the need for more study conducted on how Black working-class males from
lower socioeconomic classes are victimized by society. Despite progress made in combating
racial inequality, this specific group still faces a number of challenges, such as institutional
racism, economic marginalization, and social stigmatization1. However, a lot of the prior
victimization research has often overlooked the distinctive circumstances and vulnerabilities of
lower Black working-class men, as they occupy a certain place in society. The purpose of this
study project is to investigate the experiences of Black men of working class from lower
socioeconomic classes, assess their actual experiences, and identify the causes of their
marginalization. By concentrating on these factors, the study seeks to illuminate the complexity
of this category's assault and offer insights into the ways in which social class, ethnic origin, and
gender interact to mould their experiences.
This study employed a mixed-methods technique, which includes quantitative surveys and
qualitative interviews to capture both the person's encounters and more general patterns of
victimization. The research was conducted in many places to provide cross-case comparisons.
Strict adherence to ethical guidelines, including participant anonymity, informed permission, and
sensitive data protection, was maintained throughout the investigation.
Among the goals of this research was a comprehensive knowledge of the victimization
encounters of Black working-class males from lower socioeconomic classes, the identification of
1 McDermott, Monica, Eric D. Knowles, and Jennifer A. Richeson. "Class Perceptions and Attitudes toward
Immigration and Race among Working Class Whites 1."‐ Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy 19, no. 1 (2019):
349-380.

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important contributing elements, and recommendations for policy and practice. By addressing
the gaps in the research and providing practical guidance to tackle the challenges this
marginalized group experiences, this study enriched academic knowledge.
1.2 Significance of Study
The importance of this research is in its ability to inform choices and actions meant to address
the systemic injustices experienced by Black working-class males in lower socioeconomic strata.
By learning more about this group's victimization, legislators, advocates, and community groups
may establish targeted policies which tackle the particular challenges they experience and
progress social justice.
1.3 Research Aim
To investigate the victimization of Lower Black working-class men in the society
1.4 Research objectives
i. To investigate how often and what kind of victimization Black working-class males
encounter in society. This objective seeks to give a thorough awareness of the numerous
types of victimization that this particular demographic experiences, including mental,
emotional, and institutional violence. The study might offer insight on the distinct
difficulties experienced by lower Black working-class men by identifying the specific
forms of victimization.
ii. To investigate the economic reasons of the victimization of lower-class Black working-
class men. To comprehend victimization experiences, this objective looks into how race,
class, and gender overlap. The study can pinpoint systemic elements that continue to
victimize this demographic by examining the social and economic aspects that have an
impact on victimization.

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iii. To evaluate lower-class Black working-class men's experiences with those of other
populations. This assessment compares lower middle-class Black men to similar groups
such as middle-class Black men and middle-class White men. The study can identify the
particular difficulties experienced by lower Black working-class men by comparing and
contrasting victimization experiences.
iv. To assess the impact of victimization on the standards of life and results for lower-income
Black working-class men. This goal seeks to investigate how victimization influences
people's overall quality of life, successful academics, job possibilities, and physical and
mental wellness. The research highlights the urgent need for support and intervention
initiatives that are especially created to fulfil the requirements of lower-class Black
working-class men by highlighting the effects of victimization.
v. To suggest policy suggestions and initiatives to combat the abuse of lower-class Black
working-class men. This objective aims to provide valuable guidance to community
organization, decision-makers, and other stakeholders on how to decrease victimization
and improve the well-being of this vulnerable population.
1.5 Research questions
i. What are the frequent categories of harassment, like bodily, mental, and systemic
aggression, that poor Black blue-collar males face?
ii. In what ways are Black men with low incomes men in the working class affected by
financial problems like ethnicity, financial and social status, and gender?

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iii. What similarities are there between Black working-class men from lower socio-economic
backgrounds cases of being victimized and the experiences of working-class men of
white ethnicity from lower socio-economic backgrounds?
iv. What impact does victimization have on the psychological and physical health,
educational attainment, work possibilities, and overall happiness for economically
disadvantaged Black working-class men?
v. Which suggestions regarding government measures and actions can be presented to
reduce the mistreatment of impoverished African American working-class men? What
methods can we elevate their state of well-being?
1.6 Hypotheses
H1: Harassment such as bodily, mental, and systemic aggression negatively affect the Black
blue-collar males.
H2: Low income Black men are negatively affected by financial problems like ethnicity,
financial and social status.
H3: Working class men of white ethnicity from lower socio-economic background are less
victimized as opposed to Black working-class men from lower socio-economic background.
H4: Victimization has a negative effect on the psychological and physical health, education
attainment, work possibilities and overall happiness for economically disadvantaged Black
working-class men.

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H5: Coming up with good policies and promoting equity and social justice has a positive
influence in reducing the mistreatment of impoverished African American working-class men.
1.7 Conceptual Framework
The framework shows the relationship between the dependent and independent variable. The
parameter that is impacted by the factor that is independent is known as the dependent variable2.
On the other hand, independent variables are those that have the potential to influence changes in
the variable that is dependent and may have a positive or negative relationship with it.
2 Aspan, Henry, Iskandar Muda Sipayung, Ade Putri Muharrami, and Husni Muharram Ritonga. "The Effect of Halal
Label, Halal Awarness, Product Price, and Brand Image to the Purchasing Decision on Cosmetic Products (Case
Study on Consumers of Sari Ayu Martha Tilaar in Binjai City)." International Journal of Global Sustainability 1, no. 1
(2017): 55-66.

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2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Research on the complex and urgent issue of inequality in the society against African American
working-class men from lower socioeconomic strata needs to be done. The examination of this
literature focuses on the many forms of violence that African American working-class males who
are socially marginalized endure, as well as the underlying causes and contributing variables. It
also looks into how it affects their financial and mental health in comparison to other social and
economic groups and how effective the present legal and social systems are at managing this
issue.
2.2 Types of Victimization
Investigators have highlighted the many types of victimization that black working-class guys
from lower socioeconomic classes experience. Particularly impacted by pervasive issues like
discrimination based on race and police brutality is this community. They frequently experience
increased surveillance, harassment, and biased acts from law enforcement. They begin to feel
less included in the community and less safe as a result of this. It is confirmed that “…males are
victims of the brute power of white patriarchy, which can be seen to be enforced by police
killings of Black men…3” This depicts harassment victimization experienced by the Black men
in the hands of the police.
Male black laborers in the working class also face economic hardship and social marginalization.
They also experience institutional racism, by the way. They are far more probable to experience
prejudice at work, lack of access to excellent educational opportunities, and inadequate housing4.
3 Curry, Tommy J. "Killing boogeymen: Phallicism and the misandric mischaracterizations of Black males in
theory." Res Philosophica (2018).
4 Alang, Sirry, Donna McAlpine, Ellen McCreedy, and Rachel Hardeman. "Police brutality and black health: setting
the agenda for public health scholars." American journal of public health 107, no. 5 (2017): 662-665.

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These factors make them more vulnerable to economic exploitation that means poverty, and
limited prospects for advancement.
Welfare authorities in the Jim Crow South allowed the mistreatment of Black laborers by
enforcing "employable mother" regulations, denying payments based on ambiguous eligibility
requirements, conducting morality checks on houses, or just closing the social security office
when laborers were required in the fields5. Alongside these efforts, the police enforced the
sharecropping system by arresting Black people who were considered to be "in idleness" under
the vagrancy laws6. This often resulted in the arrest of these individuals and their forced labor
into the prison system, where chains gangs and convict-leasing programs were common.
2.3 Principal Causes and facilitating Factors
For a number of socioeconomic factors, black working-class males from lower socioeconomic
classes are often victims. In great measure, institutional racism and structural inequality maintain
their unfavorable status in society7. Unjust policies and biases in the workplace, housing
market, and educational system create barriers to their advancement socioeconomically and thus
facilitating the victimization of lower working-class Black men.
2.4 Cases, Legal Framework and Policies
It is important to examine the type of cases that has risen as result of victimization, the legal
framework and social polies that can used to combat the discriminations of the black working-
5 Soss, Joe, and Vesla Weaver. "Police are our government: Politics, political science, and the policing of race–class
subjugated communities." Annual Review of Political Science 20 (2017): 565-591.
6 Ibid
7 Elias, Amanuel, and Yin Paradies. "The costs of institutional racism and its ethical implications for
healthcare." Journal of bioethical inquiry 18 (2021): 45-58.

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class men. Prior research has underscored the shortcomings within criminal justice systems,
stating that they often perpetuate racial prejudices and fail to adequately safeguard this group8.
This makes them more vulnerable to victimization.
The UK has been dealing with these instances for a number of years. The Employment Tribunal
(ET) ruling from 2021 in the matter of Sithirapathy v. PSI CRO UK Ltd. and others is one of the
latest judgement9. The judgement was associated with cases such as the lawsuit concerned
opinions related to working hour rules, unlawful and unjust expulsion, harassment, and other
equivalent acts. The decision of the judge concluded that there was unlawful harassment.
Secondly, there is Department for Work and Pensions v Thompson [2003] UKEAT
0254_03_2711. Here, the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 was used deliver the ruling as it had the
provision for work discrimination. The Act's Section 6 outlines the situations that indicate
discrimination in the workplace is prohibited10. It is widely accepted that discrimination against
Mr. Thompson may only be deemed illegal if it results in his being put in danger of a "detriment"
as defined by section 6(2)(b).
Moreover, it is against the law to act unfairly against safeguarded groups in the workplace in the
UK since they are protected from discrimination. The essential objective and universal obligation
of establishing equality of opportunities and eradicating prejudice is stated in the EqA
Introductory Text. By consolidating the laws formerly found in other pieces of government
legislation, Race Relations Act (RRA) 1976, Equal Pay Act (EPA) 1970, Disability
Discrimination Act of 1995, and Sex Discrimination Act (SDA) 1975, the Act streamlines and
harmonizes the legal backdrop to the problem11. The EqA serves as the basis for UK law.
8 Kálmán, Botond. "Discrimination at workplace–legal approach in UK and in Hungary." (2022).
9 Sithirapathy v PSI CRO UK Ltd and others 2021.
10 Sex Discrimination Act 1975
11 Ibid

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Therefore, the establishment of effective initiatives and policies is required in order to address
the victimization that the marginalized population experiences. This can be achieved through
identifying the different types of victimization, understanding the underlying causes, analyzing
its impacts on contentment and socioeconomic status, carrying out corresponding analyses, and
assessing the social policies and legal framework that are currently in place.

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3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter elaborates on the use of mixed method, quantitative and qualitative techniques,
techniques used for sampling, calculation of sample size, data collection instruments, procedure
followed to collect data, the software used, and ethical consideration.
3.2 Qualitative Method
In addition to an emphasis on assault, the study's qualitative component looked at the opinions
and interactions of black working-class men from lower social classes12. The study included
interviews with semi-structured questions and thematic analysis as two qualitative research
methodologies to get valuable data on the participants' real-life experiences. The main
justification for employing qualitative approaches is the aim to have a complete understanding of
the many and complex circumstances faced by lower class Black working-class males. For this
study, semi-structured interviews served as the main method of data gathering. In-person
interviews were done to build rapport and delve more into the experiences of the individuals. In
order to maintain uniformity throughout interviews and provide flexibility for the exploration of
emerging topics, a guide to interviews was created.
12 Walker, Charlie. "Remaking a “failed” masculinity: working-class young men, breadwinning, and morality in
contemporary Russia." Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society 29, no. 4 (2022): 1474-1496.

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3.3 Quantitative Method
This method involved the use of survey questionnaire. A methodical survey instrument was
created to gather information from the subjects. Both closed-ended and Likert-scale items were
included in the questionnaire in order to collect quantitative information on different facets of
victimization experiences. A mixture of online surveys and in-person interviews was used to
gather data, based on the participants' preferences and level of accessibility. The use of online
and physical interview is more convenient to the respondents13. Online surveys were
disseminated using reliable survey platforms that guaranteed privacy and preservation of data.
Descriptive statistics, which include frequencies, and standard deviations, were used in the data
compilation process to provide a summary of the victimization encountered by lower-class black
working-class men. The analysis of the collected data was done using SPSS software. The
software was chosen since it offers a large selection of statistical techniques for efficient
quantitative data analysis.
3.4 Sampling
A stratified random sampling method was used to guarantee a representative sample. Lower class
Black working-class men in different geographic areas made up the intended demographic.
3.5 Sample Size Calculation
Power analysis was employed in estimating the sample size14. The calculations were as follows:
13 Grova, Monica M., Sean J. Donohue, Michael O. Meyers, Hong Jin Kim, and David W. Ollila. "Direct comparison of
in-person versus virtual interviews for complex general surgical oncology fellowship in the COVID-19 era." Annals of
Surgical Oncology 28 (2021): 1908-1915.
14 Tomczak, Maciej, Ewa Tomczak, Paweł Kleka, and Robert Lew. "Using power analysis to estimate appropriate
sample size." (2014).

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Where; n= sample size, Z=Confidence level (1.96), σ = Standard deviation (23), and E =Margin
of error. When these values were computed to find the value of n, the result obtained was 90.
3.6 Ethical Consideration
Each participant in this study was given the opportunity to participate after being made aware of
the goals. Their right to privacy and anonymity was upheld, and security precautions were taken
to protect their personal data15. The inquiry for ethical approval was submitted in accordance
with the guidelines and rules established by the relevant ethics committees. Participants did not
face any unwarranted dangers or discomfort, and action was made to offer help or suggest the
appropriate options when needed. During the study procedure, the principles of beneficence,
fairness, and respect were maintained to ensure that the freedoms and views of the participants
were respected.
15 Taquette, Stella R., and Luciana Maria Borges da Matta Souza. "Ethical dilemmas in qualitative research: A critical
literature review." International Journal of Qualitative Methods 21 (2022): 16094069221078731.

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4.0 RESULTS/FINDINGS
Based on analysing the interview responses, the researcher identified the following major themes
and sub-themes related to the victimization experiences of lower-class black working men:
4.1 Major Themes
1. Forms of victimization
o Racial profiling and discrimination
 Unfair targeting by police and security
 Extra scrutiny and bias in public spaces
o Economic marginalization
 Reduced access to loans, housing, healthcare
 Concentrated poverty limiting opportunities
o Verbal and physical harassment
 Racial slurs, feeling unsafe in certain neighbourhoods
2. Contributing factors
o Racial stereotypes and unconscious bias
 Associating black men with criminality and aggression
o Intersection of race and class
 Double stigma of being poor and black
o Systemic and historic oppression
 Legacy of discrimination, racial wealth gap
3. Impacts on wellbeing
o Physical and mental health consequences

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 Increased stress, trauma, higher disease rates
o Feelings of anger, despair and exhaustion
o Vicious cycle making upward mobility difficult
4. Comparisons with other groups
o Middle class black men face less economic hurdles
o Poor white men spared racial discrimination
o Biases persist across economic spectrum
5. Policy and social change
o Training, education, awareness campaigns
 Reduce unconscious biases
o Economic empowerment programs
o Police and criminal justice reform
o Universal access to healthcare, education, family services
Sub-themes:
 Dealing with constant suspicion and stigma is demoralizing
 Talking helps cope emotionally but cannot change systemic biases
 Current legal protections do not adequately promote equity
 Need targeted investment and development in black neighbourhoods
4.2 Relationship between the interview results and the research objectives
Research Objective 1: Identify types and frequency of victimization

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The analysis reveals several major forms of victimization mentioned by multiple participants,
demonstrating common patterns in their experiences. Racial profiling and discrimination emerge
as one clear type, with several participants highlighting specific examples like unwarranted
police targeting (Participant 2: "I've been stopped by police many times without reason besides
my race."), facing extra scrutiny in public spaces (Participant 5: "Followed suspiciously in stores
even when doing nothing wrong."), and being denied opportunities due to racial biases
(Participant 6: "As a black man, people assume I'm less competent to run a business".) Economic
marginalization is another form evidenced by comments about reduced access to loans, quality
housing, and healthcare. Participant 8 pointedly states, "Worse healthcare outcomes. Can't afford
nutritious food or gym memberships." Most participants report dealing with some type of unfair
suspicion or mistreatment on a weekly or even daily basis.
Research Objective 2: Understand contributing economic factors
The intersection of racial stereotyping and class disparities clearly contribute to victimization
patterns based on the responses. Participant 3 highlights how both racial prejudice and poverty
stigma feed biases: "Being black in low-income area leads to assumption I'm a criminal."
Participant 4 similarly shares: "Coming from an impoverished black community, people assume
I'm incapable." The combination of these identities compounds the socioeconomic barriers they
face in areas like seeking business loans (Participant 6) or finding employment after excessive
policing (Participant 7). Systemic oppression, discrimination embedded in institutions, and
historic disinvestment in black communities lurk as underlying culprits behind contemporary
hardships.
Research Objective 3:

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Compare experiences with other groups Comparative statements reinforce that middle class
black men face fewer economic roadblocks but still deal with ingrained cultural racism.
Participant 5 notes, "Middle class black men still deal with racism too but have money to insulate
impacts somewhat." Meanwhile, white working-class men are spared assumptions tied directly to
race according to participant 3. This points to the heightened marginalization produced by
intersectional identities - namely being poor and black.
Research Objective 4: Assess impacts on wellbeing
The trauma of victimization takes both physical and mental health tolls, reflected in participant
commentary about higher community disease rates (Participant 8), increased stress and
depression (Participants 6 and 7), feelings of anger and despair (Participants 2 and 10), and a
sense of exhaustion in battling uphill struggles (Participants 6 and 9). Such psychological pain
and community public health crises align with the proposal objective assessing quality of life
impacts and demonstrate need for support policies tailored to this demographic.
Research Question 1: Types of victimization
This is Seen from the examples above under Objective 1 – which include clear forms are racial
profiling by police, extra public scrutiny, reduced economic access, verbal harassment,
assumptions of criminality, lack of social capital and professional networks.
Research Question 2: Factors contributing to victimization

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Participants emphasize how racial stereotypes, along with class inequality and their convergence,
fuel socioeconomic exclusion facing respondents. Institutional racism and unconscious cultural
biases also play a role in denying opportunities according to the interview data.
Research Question 3: Comparisons with other groups
Quotes reflect that middle class status provides some protection across racial lines, while whites
overall still benefit in many interactions from an ingrained racial hierarchy favouring them in the
view of participants based on patterns of bias participants endure.
4.3 Survey Results
The survey results provide insightful quantitative data regarding the victimization experiences of
lower-income Black working-class men.
4.3.1 Survey Reliability Check
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's
Alpha N of Items
.714 17
The Cronbach’s alpha value is greater than 0.7 showing that the survey results are reliable for
analysis.
4.3.2 Frequencies

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Starting with demographics, the frequency distribution indicates that the majority of respondents
(50%) were between 26-35 years old, while 18.8% were 18-25, 26.3% were 36-45, and only 5%
were above 45.
Additionally, 96.3% reported being employed. These statistics help frame the overall sample
population.

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Moving to specific areas of victimization, several clear trends emerge. First, verbal harassment
was commonly experienced, with only 12.5% reporting never encountering it. 37.5% said
sometimes, while over 25% reported either rarely or very often facing this form of abuse. These
numbers support research objective (i) by quantifying the prevalence of verbal victimization.

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Next, physical assault was less common but still experienced by over 68% of participants to
some degree.

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Together, these statistics provide insight into research question (i) regarding common
victimization types.
An important underlying factor explored was contributors to victimization. Economic inequality
was most frequently cited, with 43.8% of respondents identifying this issue. 31.3% pointed to
racial prejudice, while smaller portions highlighted gender stereotypes (12.5%) and lack of
educational opportunities (12.5%). This data helps address research question (ii) and hypothesis
(ii) concerning how socioeconomic elements correlate with victimization likelihood.
Additionally, several questions gauged views related to working-class White men. Only 21.3%
disagreed that lower-income Black men face comparable or worse treatment, providing some
evidence toward hypothesis (iii).

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Furthermore, 40% were neutral and over 60% agreed that victimization impacts factors like self-
esteem, mental health, and feeling of belonging for lower-income Black men specifically. These
perspectives connect to research question (iv).

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Majority of the respondents agreed that victimization impacts their self esteem with a count of 30
(37.5%). This was the same for mental health, job opportunities and fear of belonging in society.

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When the respondents were asked if the policies and programs meant to promote equity would
likely reduce victimization of low-income black men, majority agreed/strongly agreed to the
motion with a total count of 58 (72.5%).

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When asked about the coping strategies used to deal with experiences in victimization, majority
chose the seeking support option (31.25%) followed closely by direct action/confrontation option
(25%).

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In terms of addressing victimization, respondents overwhelmingly endorsed the need for
supportive economic and policy initiatives rather than solely legal protections. Specifically, the
top recommendations were increased economic opportunity (31.3%), community programs
(18.8%), and educational access (18.8%). Legal safeguards were only suggested by 25% of
participants. This data assists with research question (v) regarding potentially helpful
interventions.
4.3.3 Correlations
The first cross-tabs analysis looked at the relationship between coping strategies and
victimization's impact on self-esteem.
Symmetric Measures
Value
Approximate
Significance
Nominal by Nominal Phi .358 .854
Cramer's V .179 .854

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N of Valid Cases 80
A moderate association was found (Phi = .474, p = .591), with avoidance coping more likely for
those who disagreed victimization affected self-esteem, and support-seeking more common for
those who agreed. This provides support for the first hypothesis that victimization mentally and
emotionally impacts lower Black working-class men.
The second cross-tabs analysis examined coping strategies and victimization's impact on mental
health.
Symmetric Measures
Value
Approximate
Significance
Nominal by Nominal Phi .449 .708
Cramer's V .225 .708
N of Valid Cases 80

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A similar moderate relationship was found (Phi = .449, p = .708). Those disagreeing
victimization impacted their mental health were more likely to use avoidance coping, while
support-seeking was more common for those agreeing victimization had a mental health impact.
Again, this aligns with the first hypothesis.
The third analysis looked at the association between frequency of discrimination in housing/jobs
and feeling of belonging in society.
Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymptotic
Significance
(2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 15.874a 16 .462
Likelihood Ratio 18.031 16 .322
Linear-by-Linear
Association
.138 1 .711
N of Valid Cases 80

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a. 20 cells (80.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum
expected count is .35.
No statistically significant relationship was found, providing no evidence for the third hypothesis
that victimization patterns differ between lower Black working-class men and other
demographics.
The fourth cross-tabs compared frequency of discrimination to impact on job opportunities.
Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymptotic
Significance
(2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 18.206a 16 .312
Likelihood Ratio 20.434 16 .201
Linear-by-Linear
Association
.134 1 .715
N of Valid Cases 80
a. 20 cells (80.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum
expected count is .35.
Again, no significant association was detected, failing to support the third hypothesis.
Finally, the fifth analysis examined the relationship between frequency of unfair police treatment
and likelihood of reporting victimization experiences.
Chi-Square Tests
Value df
Asymptotic
Significance
(2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 14.489a 16 .562

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Likelihood Ratio 16.403 16 .425
Linear-by-Linear
Association
8.833 1 .003
N of Valid Cases 80
a. 19 cells (76.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum
expected count is .63.
A significant linear association was found (p = .003), with more frequent unfair treatment
correlated with greater likelihood of reporting. This relates to the second research objective on
reasons for victimization, as unfair policing is a systemic issue. The willingness to report also
contrasts experiences of other demographics, providing some support for hypothesis three.

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5.0 DISCUSSION AND EVALUATION
Based on the analysis of survey and interview data, there are several key findings regarding the
victimization experiences of lower-income Black working-class men:
Frequent forms of harassment faced include verbal slurs, unjustified scrutiny and suspicion in
public spaces, as well as unfair targeting and excessive use of force by police which supports
Lisa Nelson’s literature on problems related to racial profiling and police violence16. These align
with the major theme of racial profiling and discrimination identified in the interview themes.
The survey data also supported this, with significant proportions reporting experiences of verbal
harassment and physical assault. This supports hypothesis 1 that such aggression negatively
impacts this group.
Financial problems like lack of access to loans, affordable housing and healthcare opportunities
exacerbate the socioeconomic marginalization faced by these men at the intersection of race and
class. Both the interviews and surveys highlighted economic inequality as a primary contributor
to their victimization, with participants emphasizing reduced access to resources and
compounding stigma. This aligns with hypothesis 2, demonstrating the negative effects of
poverty in combination with racial biases.
While lower-income white working-class men may face classism, the qualitative interviews
suggested they are largely spared direct racial discrimination and assumptions of criminality
faced constantly by Black peers. As Nelson et al argue, this "aggrieved whiteness" and class
precarity intersect to deny opportunities and reinforce stereotypes17. Systemic racism and historic
16 Lise Nelson, Barbara E Smith and Jamie Winders, ‘Between Aggrieved Whiteness and Class Precarity: A Feminist
Politics of Interpretation’ (2022) 29 Gender, Place & Culture 961.
17 Ibid

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oppression also emerged as underlying culprits from the interview results, reflecting Matthews et
al's analysis of how legacies of inequality manifest in contemporary marginalization18. However,
no significant difference was found in the survey correlations between these groups, failing to
support hypothesis 3. More nuanced qualitative comparative analysis may be needed.
The negative toll on mental health, self-esteem, job prospects and overall wellbeing from
constant mistreatment is made evident through both interview themes and survey results showing
impacts in these domains. Significant associations were also detected between coping strategies
and the mental health effects of victimization, supporting hypothesis 4.
Participants stressed the need for economic empowerment, community development, policy
reform, universal healthcare and anti-bias education - not just expanded legal rights. The surveys
as seen below similarly found these systemic recommendations preferable to legal actions alone.
What policies/interventions do you think would be helpful to reduce victimization based on
your experience?
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid Legal protections 20 25.0 25.0 25.0
Educational programs 15 18.8 18.8 43.8
Economic opportunities 25 31.3 31.3 75.0
Community innitiatives 15 18.8 18.8 93.8
Policies/social reform 5 6.3 6.3 100.0
Total 80 100.0 100.0
This implies hypothesis 5 and the potential of equitable policies and invested programs to
alleviate victimization by addressing root causes rather than symptoms.
18 Timothy Matthews and others, ‘A Longitudinal Twin Study of Victimization and Loneliness from Childhood to
Young Adulthood’ (2022) 34 Development and Psychopathology 367.

35
The results highlight the need for policy reforms targeting systemic racism and discrimination,
such as reforms to policing practices, access to healthcare, financing programs, and educational
opportunities. Equitable policies that promote economic empowerment and community
development could help reduce victimization by alleviating poverty and marginalization.
Moreover, Anti-bias training and education initiatives are needed to address unconscious
stereotypes that contribute to biases against this population.
Social workers also need to adopt an intersectional lens that considers how racism, classism, and
other forms of oppression intersect in experiences of victimization. Trauma-informed care is
important given mental health impacts like increased stress, depression, anger shown in the
findings. Advocacy and case management services could help address reduced access to
resources and socioeconomic barriers this population faces.
In conclusion, while more research is warranted, the overall findings provide compelling
qualitative and quantitative evidence validating the key hypotheses regarding experiences,
impacts and potential solutions for victimized lower-income Black working-class populations.
Targeted intervention and advocacy accounting for intersectional identities is strongly suggested.

36
6.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
This research aimed to understand the victimization experiences of lower-income Black
working-class men in society. Through analysis of qualitative interviews and survey data, key
findings were identified. Major forms of victimization reported included racial profiling,
economic marginalization, and verbal/physical harassment. Contributing factors included racial
stereotypes, the intersection of race and class, and systemic oppression. Victimization was shown
to negatively impact physical and mental health as well as opportunities. Comparisons revealed
greater challenges than other groups due to racial biases compounding economic disadvantages.
While this study provided valuable insights, limitations exist. The sample size was relatively
small and concentrated in one geographic area, limiting generalizability. Additional contextual
factors for different sub-populations were not examined in depth. Therefore, further research
replicating findings across broader populations would strengthen conclusions.
Nonetheless, the research objectives were achieved in identifying common patterns of
victimization, contributing socioeconomic factors, comparative impacts, and potential policy
recommendations according to those with lived experiences. Overall, the findings provided
compelling qualitative and quantitative evidence validating key hypotheses regarding
experiences, influences and solutions for this vulnerable population deserving of support and
equitable treatment in society.
Recommendations
Based on the research findings, several recommendations are proposed:

37
1. Implement wide-scale anti-bias training programs for public institutions like law
enforcement. Training should aim to shift ingrained mindsets that perpetuate
discrimination through empathy and accountability.
2. Develop dedicated economic empowerment initiatives that invest in disadvantaged Black
communities. Targeted skills training, entrepreneurship programs, grants and job
placement efforts could help address financial marginalization.
3. Establish universal basic support programs to ensure access to necessities like healthcare,
education, family services and affordable housing. This could help alleviate impacts of
poverty revealed in the study.
4. Conduct further mixed-methods research replicating the study with larger, more diverse
samples to generalize findings. Additional examination of contextual subgroup
differences is also warranted.
5. Engage policymakers and community leaders in advocating for reforms that promote
equity, accountability and community-centred solutions to discrimination and
disadvantage. Monitoring and evaluation of implemented programs should also be
prioritized.
Taking a systematic, collaborative approach to implementing pragmatic yet innovative
recommendations at multiple levels could help advance justice and wellbeing for this highly
impacted population. Continued research and real-world application are still needed.

38
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